Industri pertambangan NTT sedang menjadi sorotan akhir - akhir ini. Permasalahan kebijakan pertambangan yang tidak komprehensif hingga praktek pertambangan yang sarat pelanggaran hukum, bercampur aduk dengan kekuatiran akan dampak negatif lingkungan dan sosial pertambangan menjadi topik media massa dan diskusi para pemerhati. Bahkan tidak ketinggalan sekelompok tokoh agama menyeruhkan pembebasan NTT dari segala macam pertambangan (Pos Kupang Online, 12/7/10). Penulis berpendapat bahwa menyatakan tidak sama sekali untuk tambang di NTT, adalah pengkhianatan akan realitas dan sejarah peradaban manusia modern, dan tidak akan menyelesaikan persoalan secara efektif. Alih – alih memboikot kegiatan pertambangan di NTT, akan lebih konstruktif jika energi dan waktu diarahkan kepada advokasi desain kebijakan dan pengawasan praktek pertambangan untuk mendapatkan hasil yang optimal dengan dampak negatif yang minimum.
Mengapa “say no to mine” adalah suatu bentuk pengingkaran realitas sosial dan cenderung suatu bentuk kemunafikan yang tidak menyelesaikan masalah? Tulisan ini akan mengelaborasi fakta ketergantungan umat manusia terhadap pertambangan. Selanjutnya disodorkan beberapa fakta bahwa pertambangan juga menjadi biang kerok degradasi kualitas lingkungan dan pelanggaran hak asasi manusia, untuk meletakkan persoalan pada perspektif yang berimbang. Bagian ketiga memberi argumentasi tentang perlunya kebijakan industri pertambangan yang terintergrasi dengan strategi pembangunan yang berkelanjutan dan berwawasan lingkungan. Karena menyeruhkan stop pertambangan tanpa memboikot produk tambang pada dasarnya adalah bentuk perlawanan setengah hati bahkan basa - basi.
Pertambanganan adalah soko guru peradaban manusia
Sulit dibayangkan apa jadinya kehidupan kita tanpa industri pertambangan, walau banyak orang alergi mendengar kata ”tambang”. Ibarat lagu ”benci tetapi rindu” bahkan ketagihan, itulah hubungan manusia dengan tambang. Betapa tidak, hampir tidak ada satupun sendi kehidupan modern terlepas dari kontribusi hasil eksploitasi isi perut ibu pertiwi. Bahkan sangat paradoksal ketika sementara orang menggunakan produk pertambangan untuk menfasilitasi advokasi anti tambang. Sebagai contoh, kita tidur di rumah yang dikonstruksi dengan batu, semen, logam, dan kaca, yang dilengkapi dengan perabotan lain yang selalu ada kandungan hasil tambangnya. Selanjutnya, sebelum keluar rumah kita berkomunikasi dengan telepon genggam kemudian menumpang kendaraan yang menggunakan logam dan mienral lain sesuai intensitasnya. Singkatnya, dari rumah sampai masuk kembali ke rumah manusia selalu bersentuhan dengan bahkan tergantung pada hasil tambang.
Ketergantungan ini bukan hanya ciri jaman modern, tetapi sejak lama produk tambang telah menjadi bagian yang tidak terpisahkan dari sejarah peradaban manusia. Sewaktu hidup di gua – gua pun manusia purba menggunakan bebatuan sebagai peralatan untuk meramu dan berburu. Saking pentingnya arti hasil tambang, sejarah peradaban manusia dikategorikan berdasarkan perkembangan konsumsi jenis barang tambang. Jaman batu adalah masa dimana batu menjadi peralatan utama manusia, disusul dengan jaman logam seperti jaman tembaga dan jaman perunggu ketika manusia telah mampu mengekstrak mineral logam dari batuan untuk kepentingan sehari – hari. Lebih lanjut revelusi industri tidak bisa lepas dari penemuan mesin uap dengan batubara sebagai bahan bakarnya. Contoh di atas menjadi indikasi bahwa tambang adalah realitas, yang mau atau tidak harus diterima.
Dalam konteks Indonesia, pertambangan telah lama menjadi penyokong pertumbuhan ekonomi nasional. Pada tahun 2009 lebih tiga puluh persen pendapatan negara (APBN) disumbang oleh pertambangan dan energi (Marpaung, 2010, pers com). Belum lagi lapangan kerja yang diciptakan oleh industri pertambangan yang juga berkontribusi mengurangi jumlah pengangguran di tanah air sekecil apapun itu. Pertambangan juga berperan dalam membuka keterisolasian daerah – daerah pedalaman yang hampir tidak tersentuh oleh aktivitas ekonomi lain bahkan pemerintah sekalipun. Misalnya, dua kampung masyarakat lingkar tambang di sebuah pulau, di Maluku Barat Daya, baru menikmati investasi listrik setelah 65 tahun Indonesia merdeka, berkat kegiatan community development sebuah perusahaan eksplorasi di daerah itu pada tahun 2010.
Kegiatan pertambangan mangan di daratan Timor dan sekitarnya dengan segala kebobrokannya, telah membuka alternatif penghidupan baru bagi masyarakat NTT. Kegiatan pertambangan memberi peluang diversifikasi mata pencaharian yang tidak kita bayangkan sebelumnya. Kenyataan ini perlu diterima sebagai anugerah Tuhan yang perlu disyukuri dan dimanfaatkan untuk kesejahteraan rakyat secara bertanggung jawab. Dengan kata lain, penolakan mutlak terhadap tambang dengan sendirinya adalah pengingkaran terhadap keunggulan kompetitif yang seharusnya menjadi modal untuk memacu kesejahteraan masyarakat. Namun, benar bahwa keunggulan kompetitif berbasis alam perlu dikembangkan dengan menpertimbangkan aspek manfaat yang diselaraskan dengan daya dukung lingkungan.
Sisi Gelap Pertambangan
Fakta dan sejarah membuktikan bahwa tidak ada satu pilihan yang seratus persen baik, termasuk pertambangan. Para ahli ekonomi sosialis mengibaratkan aspek positif dan negatif suatu pilihan seperti kedua sisi koin yang tidak bisa dipisahkan. Akibatnya, mereka mengkritik pemikiran ekonomi kapitalis yang memperlakukan aspek negatif sebagai eksternalitas (externalities). Sebagai misal, listrik adalah sesuatu yang sangat esensial bagi kehidupan manusia modern; tetapi jika tidak dikelolah dengan baik bisa membawa malapetaka seperti kebakaran. Pertambangan pun memiliki sisi negatif yang dapat merugikan lingkungan, sosial, dan ekonomi jika tidak dikelolah secara baik pula.
Industri pertambangan dan kegiatan ikutannya rentan merusak lingkungan. Kegiatan pertambangan harus diakui mengganggu kesetimbangan lingkungan, setidaknya untuk waktu yang singkat. Ada tiga sumber kerusakan lingkungan yang ditimbulkan oleh pertambangan yakni, pertama dalam proses produksi seperti pembukaan lahan, limbah yang dibuang seperti ’tailing’ dan batu penutup (overburden) dan limbah lain selama produksi. Contohnya adalah kegiatan pertambangan permukaan (open pit) yang mengubah topografi sekitar dan pembuangan limbah proses ke alam bebas. Sumber kedua adalah pembuangan yang disebabkan oleh konsumsi produk tambang yang tidak sempurna seperti emisi buangan dari pembakaran batubara atau minyak bumi atau bangunan dan besi tua (scraps) yang dibiarkan teronggok. Kerusakan lingkungan yang nyata di Indonesia adalah tapak – tapak tambang yang dibiarkan terbuka di daerah Kalimantan atau tailing yang dialirkan bebas di sungai seperti di Papua. Sedangkan emisi kasus lingkungan yang kedua seperti karbon monooksida yang dipercaya merusak ozon. Yang ketiga, pertambangan pun dapat menyebabkan malapetaka lingkungan akibat salah kelolah atau kondisi alam yang tidak terdeteksi oleh sistem mitigasi yang ada. Contoh di kecelakaan di luar negeri adalah kasus tumpah minyak di Teluk Meksiko Amerika serikat yang melibatkan perusahaan minyak raksasa, British Petroleum. Sementara semburan lumpur dari sumur explorasi Lapindo Brantas adalah contoh klasik kecelakaan dalam negari yang belum dapat ditanggulangi sampai saat ini.
Pertambangan sering juga menuai suara minor akibat dampak sosial yang ditimbulkannya. Pelanggaran hak asasi manusia, kemampuannya mempengaruhi independensi pengambil kebijakan publik, kerusakan kebudayaan lokal dan penggerogotan institusi sosial adalah beberapa masalah sosial pertambangan. Misalnya, tambang banyak dituding menjadi sumber konflik bersenjata di beberapa negara benua Afrika. Contoh yang paling hangat di NTT adalah kehadiran tambang yang memicu konflik horisontal antara mereka yang pro dan kontra pertambangan. Tidak ketinggalan adalah kecelakaan tambang akibat perlindungan pekerja yang minim kalau tidak dibilang tidak ada.
Sisi buruk lain yang bisa diulas adalah di bidang ekonomi. Ketergantungan yang berlebihan pada satu sektor perekonomian yang memiliki sirkulasi uang yang besar seperti pertambangan dapat merusak ekonomi secara jangka panjang atau yang disebut dengan Dutch disease. Dalam konteks NTT, Dutch disease dapat dijelaskan sebagai berikut. Jumlah uang yang besar dari pertambangan menyebabkan industri lain menjadi tidak kompetitif, sehingga ditinggalkan. Karena sifat pertambangan yang tidak terbarukan mengakibatkan perekonomian dapat collapse akibat terhentinya kegiatan pertambangan; sementara sektor lain menjadi tidak kompetitif dan sangat tergantung pada injeksi uang dari pertambangan. Fenomena ini dapat dilihat di Timor ketika masyarakat TTU meninggalkan ladang (baca: sektor pertanian) dan beralih kepada tambang mangan yang cepat menghasilkan uang segar. Dalam skenario terburuk, saat mangan habis lahan sudah tidak dapat dikelolah lagi karena telah diselimuti belukar; sementara harga barang menjadi mahal karena inflasi. Dalam skala nasional ini lebih kompleks karena melibatkan nilai tukar mata uang.
Adopsi UU No 4 tahun 2009 dan Mining Industry Best Practices
Melihat efek negatif pertambangan di atas maka kehadiran pertambangan perlu disikapi dengan hati – hati. Cara terbaik untuk menolak tambang adalah memboikot segala macam produk dengan konten tambang. Kenyataan dunia moderm menunjukkan bahwa kita belum dapat hidup tanpa hasil tambang. Sehingga, janganlah membakar rumah untuk mengusir tikus. Apa lagi kita menolak tambang di NTT, tanpa melepaskan diri dari produk tambang dan turunnya, hanya akan memindahkan pertambangan di bagian bumi yang lain. Pertanyaan etisnya, mengapa kita membiarkan tambang di tempat lain tetapi tidak di kampung sendiri.
Pertambangan, sebaliknya, harus dikelolah secara strategis untuk mendapatkan keuntungan yang optimum dengan dampak negatif yang seminim mungkin. Bila perlu kegiatan pertambangan di suatu daerah dihentikan jika memang net benefit bagi masyarakat negatif. Dengan kata lain, industri pertambangan dikembangkan dengan mempertimbangan keunggulan komparatifnya terhadap sektor ekonomi lainnya. Lagi pula karena sifat pertambangan yang ekstraktif, maka pertambangan yang tidak menguntungkan merupakan kerugian yang berlipat ganda. Tak laiknya industri lain, yang masih mungkin dioperasikan pada kondisi break even, karena pertambangan menguras asetnya (cadangan mineral) yang tak terbarukan. Semisal, nilai ekonomi pertambangan mangan bagi masyarakat, pemerintah dan pengusaha di Timor, jika ternyata tidak seimbang dengan biaya lingkungan, sosial dan ekonomi yang timbul karena kegiatan pertambangan, maka seharusnya dihentikan karena mangan habis tanpa membawa dampak positif ekonomi. Sebaiknya, dibiarkan hingga masyarakat cukup siap untuk mengelolah pertambangan secara menguntungkan di masa depan.
Untuk mendapatkan manfaat optimum aktivitas pertambangan dibutuhkan kondisi (kebijakan dan struktur sosial dan ekonomi) yang memungkinkan bagi praktek pertambangan yang bertanggung jawab (good mining practice). Suatu daerah yang hanya berlimpah sumber daya alam tanpa memiliki instrumen kebijakan pertambangan dan dukungan infrastruktur sosial yang memadai sulit menuai hasil optimal dari kehadiran kegiatan pertambangan, apa lagi dikelolah oleh pengusaha yang oportunis bermodal nekat. Pada hal sumber daya alam adalah jenis keunggulan kompetitif yang dikendalikan oleh lokasi keterdapatannya, sehingga pemanfaatannya dapat diarahkan untuk membuka sentra pertumbuhan ekonomi baru, membuka keterisolasian wilayah, dan menjadi landasan pengembangan wilayah dan ekonomi (inkubasi bisnis) daerah.
Pemerintah, sebagai pihak yang paling bertanggung jawab, perlu menyediakan kebijakan pertambangan (mineral policy) yang tepat, dan memastikan usaha pertambangan menyokong strategi umum pengembangan dan pembangunan wilayah. UU No 4 tahun 2009 mengharuskan ijin usaha pertambangan mengacu pada rencana umum tata ruang wilayah, menunjukkan bahwa pertambangan harus diintergrasikan dengan blue print pembangunan ekonomi suatu daerah. Sayangnya, dengan kapasitas yang terbatas dan kuasa berlebihan akibat otonomi daerah, pemerintah daerah berusaha mengeluarkan ijin usaha pertambangan tanpa melewati kajian yang komprehensif cenderung serampangan. Bahkan, beberapa kabupaten berusaha mengakali himbauan pemerintah pusat, untuk menghentikan sementara ijin pertambangan hingga UU Pertambangan tersebut dilengkapi dengan aturan pendukung yang memadai, dengan mengeluarkan ijin kuasa pertambangan secara back dated. Para pejabat demikian tidak lebih baik daripada pengusaha yang dituding rakus dan tidak bertanggung jawab karena merekalah yang biang kerok kejahatan pertambangan.
Jika UU No 4 tahun 2009 tentang Pertambangan dan aturan turunannya diimplementasikan dengan baik, maka sangat mungkin industri pertambangan di daerah memberi kontribusi positif bagi pembangunan. UU ini telah cukup rinci memberi pedoman, baik bagi para pengambil kebijakan maupun pelaku usaha pertambangan. Sayangnya, pada tataran implementasi, kolusi pengambil kebijakan dengan pengusaha oportunis bermodal cekak, memunculkan pertambangan sebagai momok yang menakutkan. Contohnya, peluang ekspor mangan menyebabkan banyak kecelakaan tambang artisanal, bahkan melibatkan ibu hamil dan anak di bawah umur. Namun tidak terlihat jelas apa tanggung jawab dan tindakan pemerintah, sama kaburnya dengan tanggung jawab penadah yang jelas melanggar aturan, karena menerima dari sumber yang tidak sah.
Lantas apa yang harus dilakukan para pemangku kepentingan, seperti pemerintah, pengusaha dan stakeholders lainnya? Semua pihak perlu mengembangkan peran masing – masing untuk mendapatkan titik equilibrium bagi pertambangan, yang mengakomodasi kepentingan kaum anti tambang dan pro tambang. Pemerintah dalam tataran kebijakan perlu melakukan langkah strategis sebelum mengijinkan kegiatan pertambangan. Langka – langka yang terutama adalah berdasarkan peta geologi dan data pendukung lainnya menetapkan rencana tata ruang wilayah (RTRW). Kemudian ditentukan daerah mana yang akan menjadi wilayah pertambangan. Wilayah pertambangan menjadi dasar pengeluaran ijin usaha pertambangan. Dari situlah pemerintah menyediakan perangkat peraturan dan merangsang berkembangnya institusi sosial dan ekonomi, yang memungkinkan pertambangan memberi dampak positif optimal dan negatif minimum. Pengembangan sumber daya manusia dan entitas sosial lain yang dapat meningkatkan efek ekonomi berganda pertambangan perlu direncanakan. Analisa opsi – opsi yang memungkinkan (option analysis) dan in put – out put analysis dapat diadopsi untuk mengkuantifikasi dan menentukan strategi yang optimal. Harapannya, pemerintah dapat mengambil keputusan yang dapat akuntabel dan ilmiah.
Pengusaha yang diijinkan adalah pengusaha visioner yang bersedia menerapkan good mining practice (praktek pertambangan yang bertanggung jawab). Good mining practice adalah metode pertambangan yang mengadopsi industry best practices, biarpun tidak ada peraturan pemerintah. Ironisnya, implementasi industry best practice menjadi sesuatu yang sangat sulit bagi pengusaha lokal yang bermodal kolusif bukan uang, karena dibutuhkan uang yang besar. Industry best practice mengandaikan legal license and social license to operate berjalan simultan. Kedua ijin ini diperoleh dengan menjalani semua langka administrastif, teknis dan non teknis yang sebagian besar telah tercantum dalam UU pertambangan tahun 2009.
Misalnya, ijin usaha pertambangan (IUP) eksploitasi harus melewati tahap ekplorasi untuk mendapatkan data yang menjadi landasan teknis kajian kelayakan (feasibility study) yang menyangkut layak ekonomi, teknologi, dan lingkungan. Secara normatif, ada juga kewajiban AMDAL (environmental impact analysis) yang memuat secara khusus tentang kelayakan lingkungan. Mengingat sedikitnya sentuhan aspek sosial dalam kajian AMDAL, pengusaha diwajibkan untuk menyusun dokumen rencana pengakhiran tambang (mine closure plan) yang memuat rencana rona akhir kondisi lingkungan, sosial, dan ekonomi daerah setempat pasca tambang, serta kiat pengusaha untuk mewujudkan estimasi. Hal ini dibuktikan kesungguhannya dengan dana jaminan pengakhiran tambang, yang hanya bisa dicairkan jika kewajiban pengakhiran tambang telah memenuhi standar yang ditetapkan. Jelaslah, hanya dengan mengikuti persyaratan normatif ini saja sebagian good mining practice telah terpenuhi apa lagi mengadopsi best mining practice.
Elemen masyarakat lain yang anti tambang tidak seharusnya ditolak karena mereka adalah bandul penyeimbang system control sosial kita. Pemerintah dan pengusaha perlu melibatkan mereka dan memahami apa yang diinginkan (put your feet to their shoes). Pekerjaan rumahnya adalah menyelesaikan egoisme sektoral, yang menyebabkan kutub anti tambang dan pro tambang saling menarik simpati dengan propaganda negatif tidak berimbang. Praktek ini hanya memicu konflik horisontal masyarakat kecil yang sejatinya hanya ingin hidup yang lebih baik. Sudah saatnya, setiap elemen berhenti mengklaim kepemilikan atas kebenaran tunggal yang membingungkan masyarakat awam, karena hanya Tuhanlah yang memiliki kebenaran mutlak.
Kesimpulannya, pertambangan tak bedanya dengan bidang kehidupan lainnya, yang memiliki aspek aspek positif dan negatif. Realitas sejarah bersaksi pertambangan telah menjadi bagian yang tak terpisahkan dari keseharian manusia sehingga menafikan tambang sama dengan mengkhianati peradaban. Pilihan yang paling realistik dan efektif adalah mengawal pertambangan dengan saksama untuk memastikan dampak positif yang optimal dengan efek negatif sekecil mungkin. Pilihan ini hanya berarti jika pertambangan diintegrasikan dengan rencana strategis pembangunan daerah, dan para pelaku bisnis pertambangan mengadopsi industry best practices. Sementara itu, suara – suara kritis melawan pertambangan haruslah tetap diberi ruang untuk terus menerus mengusik sona kenyamanan pelaku pertambangan dan pengambil kebijakan, demi perwujudan industri pertambangan yang makin jauh dari sifat barbarian dan makin ramah lingkungan dan menjadi bagian integral dari kehidupan masyarakat setempat dalam operasinya. Semoga kita tidak membatasi mimpi untuk suatu NTT yang lebih baik yang mungkin datang lewat industri pertambangan.
Tuesday, 27 July 2010
Thursday, 23 July 2009
MENGAWAL INDUSTRI PERTAMBANGAN DENGAN NURANI DAN AKAL SEHAT
Oleh Herman Seran
Kasus eksplorasi di Manggarai Barat menyiratkan dua perspektif yang menjadi pijakan dua belah pihak, mereka yang mendukung dan mereka yang menolak pertambangan. Dari berita – berita media massa, pemerintah dan pengusaha berpatokan pada konteks legal license to operate dan kelompok masyarakat yang didukung lembaga non pemerintah berpihak pada social license to operate. Sejatinya, dua aspek tersebut saling mendukung dalam praktek industri pertambangan modern. Sayangnya, arogansi sektoral dan pemahaman parsial dari pihak – pihak yang terlibat menjadikannya seolah dua dunia yang berbeda. Tulisan ini mencoba menawarkan solusi untuk mengurai benang kusut industri pertambangan NTT yang sangat ruwet dari tataran visi hingga prakteknya. Hal lain menjadi perhatian adalah pemahaman yang bias dari para penentang tambang yang berujung pada klaim – klaim spekulatif yang memojokkan para pendukung tambang seolah mereka adalah pengkhianat bumi Flobamora yang sama kita cintai.
Sejarah peradaban manusia tidak dapat dilepaskan dari peranan produk tambang dalam mendeterminasi arah perkembangannya. Peradaban kita diidentikkan dengan pemanfaatan hasil tambang dalam kehidupan kita. Tentu kita tidak lupa bahwa tahapan perkembangan kebudayaan manusia dijuluki dengan jaman batu, jaman tembaga, hingga revolusi industri yang ditandai dengan batubara sebagai pembangkit mesin uap. Bahkan, pada jaman informasi ini, telpon genggam, rumah tempat kita tinggal, kendaraan yang kita tumpangi hingga cincin kawin yang menjadi simbol ikatan suami istri tidak lepas dari produk tambang.
Sejak Indonesia merdeka, industri pertambangan tidak dipungkiri merupakan penyumbang yang sangat besar bagi keuangan negara Indonesia secara khusus. Misalnya, tahun 2008 industri pertambangan menyumbang sekitar Rp12 triliun sementara sektor kehutanan Rp3.8 triliun dan Kelautan Rp0.8 trilliun (Marpaung, pers com 2009). Perekonomian masyarakat NTT tentu akan banyak terbantu jika secara strategis mengembangkan industri pertambangannya, mengingat pertambangan adalah industri yang location driven. Artinya, kehadiran industri pertambangan di NTT bisa memicu sentra ekonomi baru dan diversifikasi sumber penghidupan yang pada gilirsannya dapat meningkatkan taraf hidup masyarakat NTT.
Namun perananan tambang dalam perekonomian tidak serta merta menafikan fakta bahwa ada potensi kerusakan lingkungan dan sosial yang bisa berdampak besar hingga menghancurkan perekonomian sendiri. Bahkan ketergantungan ekonomi berlebihan pada industri pertambangan dapat berakibat negatif pada perekonomian negara, seperti fenomena dutch disease dan Prebisch-Tsinger hypothesis. Akibatnya muncullah tesis resource curse atau kelimpahan sumber daya alam membawa petaka, yang sebenarnya bukan karena industri itu sendiri tetapi lebih karena salah urus ekonomi pertambangan. Melihat peranan pertambangan yang seumpama pedang bermata dua ini, maka pengembangan industri pertambangan tidak harus ditolak tetapi dikembangkan secara strategis dan melewati kajian – kajian yang komprehensif.
Kajian yang mendalam dan transparan dapat menghindari gelombang penolakan dengan alasan seperti yang selama ini dilansir media komunikasi di NTT. Ijin eksplorasi adalah ijin untuk melakuan penyelidikan untuk mengetahui layak tidaknya kegiatan dilanjutkan ke tahap penambangan. Artinya, jika hasilnya sudah dijual bukan lagi eksplorasi melainkan eksploitasi. Walaupun demikian UU Pertambangan Mineral dan Batubara (UU No 4/2009) mengharuskan adanya AMDAL, jika akibat eksplorasi itu berdampak besar terhadap lingkungan sekitar. Jika kajiannya menunjukkan dampak eksplorasi tidak signifikan maka masih tetap diperlukan UPL/UKL. Apakah ijin eksplorasi yang diterbitkan sudah menyertakan AMDAL atau UPL/UKL? Hanya pemerintah yang tahu jawabannya.
Di samping itu, ijin masyarakat sekitar sebagai salah satu pemangku kepentingan adalah mutlak perlu dalam konteks social license, terlepas dari status kepemilikan tanah lokasi eksplorasi. Seharusnya, legal license dari pemerintah diberikan dengan memperhatikan aspek penerimaan masyarakat lokal. Di sinilah pemerintah perlu berperan sebagai wasit yang adil bagi setiap warga negara bukan maju tak gentar menyokong pemodal. Sementara itu perusahaan yang tidak menghormati eksistensi masyarakat lokal tidak layak dipertahankan karena tidak mengemban prinsip – prinsip good corporate citizenship yang meliputi perlindungan lingkungan dan pengakuan hak – hak masyarakat lokal.
Namun demikian merupakan suatu spekulasi yan terlalu dini ketika ada yang beragumen bahwa tambang tidak berkelanjutan atau bahkan kontraproduktif terhadap industri pariwisata di Manggarai Barat. Tambang bisa bermanfaat secara berkelanjutan dan dapat berkontribusi positif terhadap bidang perekonomian lain jika dikelolah secara strategis dan integratif. Pemahaman sustainable dalam sektor extractive industry seperti tambang adalah lebih pada fungsinya yang berkelanjutan ketika digunakan untuk mengembangkan industri – industri turunannya. Sebagai contoh, sejarah pertambangan yang panjang di Australia dan Canada telah membantu mereka untuk mengembangkan industri dan ekonomi berbasis tambang yang sekarang ini mendominasi kegiatan pertambangan di negara – negara berkembang. Bahkan ada beberapa daerah bekas tambang di Australia dijadikan sebagai situs – situs pariwisata yang memperkaya objek wisata kota – kota tambang tertentu.
Pertanyaannya, apakah hal tersebut dapat diimplementasikan di Indonesia dan Manggarai Barat pada khususnya? Jawabannya adalah sangat bisa, dengan asumsi bahwa persyaratan – persyaratan yang termaktub dalam UU No 4 tahun 2009 diikuti secara baik. Hal yang tidak kalah penting adalah pihak – pihak yang bertentangan tidak berusaha mempertahankan posisi masing – masing, melainkan berusaha untuk mencari ‘common ground’ untuk kebaikan bersama.
Secara konkret, pemerintah harus membuka diri untuk melihat kembali IUP eksplorasi yang telah diterbitkan apakah, setidaknya secara normatif, telah memenuhi UU pertambangan atau tidak. Karena UU pertambangan yang baru diundangkan awal 2009 tersebut sangat komprehensif dalam aspek lingkungan, pembangunan berkelanjutan termasuk pengakuan hak masyarakat lokal. Pada saat yang sama pihak yang bersebarangan hendaknya tidak memasang harga mati untuk menolak tambang tanpa menyisahkan ruang negosiasi. Sebaliknya, semua stakeholders duduk bersama dengan kepala dingin melihat duduk persoalan kehadiran tambang bagi perekonomian dan peradaban wilayah tersebut.
Praktisnya, pemerintah dan masyarakat dapat meminimalkan kerusakan lingkungan bahkan menyelaraskan pertambangan dengan rencana strategi pengembangan wilayah, termasuk industri pariwisata daerah. Langkanya adalah intervensi pemangku kepentingan dalam pembuatan AMDAL, feasibility study atau studi kelayakan dan mine closure planning (rencana penutupan tambang). AMDAL memuat gambaran tentang menajemen dampak lingkungan termasuk di dalam bagaimana kerusakan lingkungan dikendalikan termasuk tailing atau limbah diperlakukan. Studi kelayakan mengandaikan AMDAL dan dokumen rencana penutupan tambang; karena suatu kegiatan pertambangan harus layak secara ekonomi, teknis dan lingkungan. Dokumen penutupan tambang memuat visi dan strategi perusahaan dalam menangani perubahan lingkungan, sosial dan ekonomi akibat terhentinya kegiatan pertambangan. Ketiga dokumen di atas jika dikerjakan dengan benar akan meminimalisir dampak negatif dari kegiatan pertambangan. Sayangnya, banyak kajian hanya dilakukan sekedar untuk memenuhi persyaratan normatif.
Bahkan stakeholders bisa menjadi shareholders agar bisa menentukan arah kebijakan operasional perusahaan. Hal ini mengandaikan bahwa perusahaan diberi kesempatan untuk melakukan eksplorasi untuk memastikan bahwa daerah tersebut layak atau tidak untuk dikembangkan sebagai suatu lokasi pertambangan. Hasil eksplorasi menjadi dasar untuk melakukan berbagai macam skenario keuangan maupun operasional yang dituangkan dalam ketiga dokumen di atas. Perlu diingat bahwa peluang untuk suatu kegiatan eksplorasi untuk bisa sampai pada tahap penambangan umumnya hanya berkisar 30 – 10 persen. Artinya dengan membiarkan pengusaha melakukan eksplorasi daerah diuntungkan dengan informasi yang dapat dipakai sebagai data perencanaan wilayah secara gratis walaupun tidak harus ditambang. Asalkan kita perlu mengawal agar kerusakan lingkungan yang terjadi selama eksplorasi direhabilitasi secara pantas.
Sebagai penutup, pemerintah daerah, pengusaha, masyarakat dan lembaga non pemerintah harus arif melihat persoalan pertambangan Manggarai Barat. Semua pihak perlu duduk bersama untuk mencari solusi alias corrective actions bukan mempertahankan posisi masing – masing. Semua yang berniat baik harus punya alternatif terbaik yang menguntungkan semua pihak, sehingga bisa duduk satu meja untuk bernegosiasi. Kalau semua dilandasi niat baik untuk Flobamora dan Manggarai Barat pada khususnya, mengapa tidak bisa dipersatukan? Jika tidak bisa dipersatukan pasti ada serigala berbulu domba. Semoga ketakutan ini tidak terjadi di bumi Flobamora. Karena kita semua berjuang dengan hati tanpa mengingkari akal sehat kita masing -masing***.
Sejarah peradaban manusia tidak dapat dilepaskan dari peranan produk tambang dalam mendeterminasi arah perkembangannya. Peradaban kita diidentikkan dengan pemanfaatan hasil tambang dalam kehidupan kita. Tentu kita tidak lupa bahwa tahapan perkembangan kebudayaan manusia dijuluki dengan jaman batu, jaman tembaga, hingga revolusi industri yang ditandai dengan batubara sebagai pembangkit mesin uap. Bahkan, pada jaman informasi ini, telpon genggam, rumah tempat kita tinggal, kendaraan yang kita tumpangi hingga cincin kawin yang menjadi simbol ikatan suami istri tidak lepas dari produk tambang.
Sejak Indonesia merdeka, industri pertambangan tidak dipungkiri merupakan penyumbang yang sangat besar bagi keuangan negara Indonesia secara khusus. Misalnya, tahun 2008 industri pertambangan menyumbang sekitar Rp12 triliun sementara sektor kehutanan Rp3.8 triliun dan Kelautan Rp0.8 trilliun (Marpaung, pers com 2009). Perekonomian masyarakat NTT tentu akan banyak terbantu jika secara strategis mengembangkan industri pertambangannya, mengingat pertambangan adalah industri yang location driven. Artinya, kehadiran industri pertambangan di NTT bisa memicu sentra ekonomi baru dan diversifikasi sumber penghidupan yang pada gilirsannya dapat meningkatkan taraf hidup masyarakat NTT.
Namun perananan tambang dalam perekonomian tidak serta merta menafikan fakta bahwa ada potensi kerusakan lingkungan dan sosial yang bisa berdampak besar hingga menghancurkan perekonomian sendiri. Bahkan ketergantungan ekonomi berlebihan pada industri pertambangan dapat berakibat negatif pada perekonomian negara, seperti fenomena dutch disease dan Prebisch-Tsinger hypothesis. Akibatnya muncullah tesis resource curse atau kelimpahan sumber daya alam membawa petaka, yang sebenarnya bukan karena industri itu sendiri tetapi lebih karena salah urus ekonomi pertambangan. Melihat peranan pertambangan yang seumpama pedang bermata dua ini, maka pengembangan industri pertambangan tidak harus ditolak tetapi dikembangkan secara strategis dan melewati kajian – kajian yang komprehensif.
Kajian yang mendalam dan transparan dapat menghindari gelombang penolakan dengan alasan seperti yang selama ini dilansir media komunikasi di NTT. Ijin eksplorasi adalah ijin untuk melakuan penyelidikan untuk mengetahui layak tidaknya kegiatan dilanjutkan ke tahap penambangan. Artinya, jika hasilnya sudah dijual bukan lagi eksplorasi melainkan eksploitasi. Walaupun demikian UU Pertambangan Mineral dan Batubara (UU No 4/2009) mengharuskan adanya AMDAL, jika akibat eksplorasi itu berdampak besar terhadap lingkungan sekitar. Jika kajiannya menunjukkan dampak eksplorasi tidak signifikan maka masih tetap diperlukan UPL/UKL. Apakah ijin eksplorasi yang diterbitkan sudah menyertakan AMDAL atau UPL/UKL? Hanya pemerintah yang tahu jawabannya.
Di samping itu, ijin masyarakat sekitar sebagai salah satu pemangku kepentingan adalah mutlak perlu dalam konteks social license, terlepas dari status kepemilikan tanah lokasi eksplorasi. Seharusnya, legal license dari pemerintah diberikan dengan memperhatikan aspek penerimaan masyarakat lokal. Di sinilah pemerintah perlu berperan sebagai wasit yang adil bagi setiap warga negara bukan maju tak gentar menyokong pemodal. Sementara itu perusahaan yang tidak menghormati eksistensi masyarakat lokal tidak layak dipertahankan karena tidak mengemban prinsip – prinsip good corporate citizenship yang meliputi perlindungan lingkungan dan pengakuan hak – hak masyarakat lokal.
Namun demikian merupakan suatu spekulasi yan terlalu dini ketika ada yang beragumen bahwa tambang tidak berkelanjutan atau bahkan kontraproduktif terhadap industri pariwisata di Manggarai Barat. Tambang bisa bermanfaat secara berkelanjutan dan dapat berkontribusi positif terhadap bidang perekonomian lain jika dikelolah secara strategis dan integratif. Pemahaman sustainable dalam sektor extractive industry seperti tambang adalah lebih pada fungsinya yang berkelanjutan ketika digunakan untuk mengembangkan industri – industri turunannya. Sebagai contoh, sejarah pertambangan yang panjang di Australia dan Canada telah membantu mereka untuk mengembangkan industri dan ekonomi berbasis tambang yang sekarang ini mendominasi kegiatan pertambangan di negara – negara berkembang. Bahkan ada beberapa daerah bekas tambang di Australia dijadikan sebagai situs – situs pariwisata yang memperkaya objek wisata kota – kota tambang tertentu.
Pertanyaannya, apakah hal tersebut dapat diimplementasikan di Indonesia dan Manggarai Barat pada khususnya? Jawabannya adalah sangat bisa, dengan asumsi bahwa persyaratan – persyaratan yang termaktub dalam UU No 4 tahun 2009 diikuti secara baik. Hal yang tidak kalah penting adalah pihak – pihak yang bertentangan tidak berusaha mempertahankan posisi masing – masing, melainkan berusaha untuk mencari ‘common ground’ untuk kebaikan bersama.
Secara konkret, pemerintah harus membuka diri untuk melihat kembali IUP eksplorasi yang telah diterbitkan apakah, setidaknya secara normatif, telah memenuhi UU pertambangan atau tidak. Karena UU pertambangan yang baru diundangkan awal 2009 tersebut sangat komprehensif dalam aspek lingkungan, pembangunan berkelanjutan termasuk pengakuan hak masyarakat lokal. Pada saat yang sama pihak yang bersebarangan hendaknya tidak memasang harga mati untuk menolak tambang tanpa menyisahkan ruang negosiasi. Sebaliknya, semua stakeholders duduk bersama dengan kepala dingin melihat duduk persoalan kehadiran tambang bagi perekonomian dan peradaban wilayah tersebut.
Praktisnya, pemerintah dan masyarakat dapat meminimalkan kerusakan lingkungan bahkan menyelaraskan pertambangan dengan rencana strategi pengembangan wilayah, termasuk industri pariwisata daerah. Langkanya adalah intervensi pemangku kepentingan dalam pembuatan AMDAL, feasibility study atau studi kelayakan dan mine closure planning (rencana penutupan tambang). AMDAL memuat gambaran tentang menajemen dampak lingkungan termasuk di dalam bagaimana kerusakan lingkungan dikendalikan termasuk tailing atau limbah diperlakukan. Studi kelayakan mengandaikan AMDAL dan dokumen rencana penutupan tambang; karena suatu kegiatan pertambangan harus layak secara ekonomi, teknis dan lingkungan. Dokumen penutupan tambang memuat visi dan strategi perusahaan dalam menangani perubahan lingkungan, sosial dan ekonomi akibat terhentinya kegiatan pertambangan. Ketiga dokumen di atas jika dikerjakan dengan benar akan meminimalisir dampak negatif dari kegiatan pertambangan. Sayangnya, banyak kajian hanya dilakukan sekedar untuk memenuhi persyaratan normatif.
Bahkan stakeholders bisa menjadi shareholders agar bisa menentukan arah kebijakan operasional perusahaan. Hal ini mengandaikan bahwa perusahaan diberi kesempatan untuk melakukan eksplorasi untuk memastikan bahwa daerah tersebut layak atau tidak untuk dikembangkan sebagai suatu lokasi pertambangan. Hasil eksplorasi menjadi dasar untuk melakukan berbagai macam skenario keuangan maupun operasional yang dituangkan dalam ketiga dokumen di atas. Perlu diingat bahwa peluang untuk suatu kegiatan eksplorasi untuk bisa sampai pada tahap penambangan umumnya hanya berkisar 30 – 10 persen. Artinya dengan membiarkan pengusaha melakukan eksplorasi daerah diuntungkan dengan informasi yang dapat dipakai sebagai data perencanaan wilayah secara gratis walaupun tidak harus ditambang. Asalkan kita perlu mengawal agar kerusakan lingkungan yang terjadi selama eksplorasi direhabilitasi secara pantas.
Sebagai penutup, pemerintah daerah, pengusaha, masyarakat dan lembaga non pemerintah harus arif melihat persoalan pertambangan Manggarai Barat. Semua pihak perlu duduk bersama untuk mencari solusi alias corrective actions bukan mempertahankan posisi masing – masing. Semua yang berniat baik harus punya alternatif terbaik yang menguntungkan semua pihak, sehingga bisa duduk satu meja untuk bernegosiasi. Kalau semua dilandasi niat baik untuk Flobamora dan Manggarai Barat pada khususnya, mengapa tidak bisa dipersatukan? Jika tidak bisa dipersatukan pasti ada serigala berbulu domba. Semoga ketakutan ini tidak terjadi di bumi Flobamora. Karena kita semua berjuang dengan hati tanpa mengingkari akal sehat kita masing -masing***.
Saturday, 29 November 2008
OPTIMISING THE ROLE OF THE STATE GOVERNANCE OF DEVELOPING NATIONS IN PROMOTING THE FIFTH KONDRATIEFF WAVE UPSWING
By Herman Seran
Introduction
Based on circular – cumulative – causative (CCC) principle, proposed by socio-political economists, agents involve in global economy are interdependent. Promoting specific sectors while undermining the rests is, therefore, prone to failure. Hence, global economic problems should be addressed through holistic and integrative policies and strategies. As a matter of fact, they argue that the negative side of the economic development should be treated as inextricable results of economic development, not as externalities suggested by liberalism economists.
Even though the current stage of the global economy is dominated by free market principles, to some extent, the interventions of governments still exist (Ricupero, 1997). Nevertheless, many challenge the effectiveness of their involvements (Boettke & Leeson (2004), Hertel, (2003)). Hesitation over governments’ ability has reasonable ground, in particular concerning those in developing nations. Given the current state of affairs, the question is then: are these governments able to promote the fifth global economic upswing? To clarify the above issue, the following questions need to be considered furthermore. Do governments have adequate knowledge to provide effective policies? Do politicians and public servants have reasonable motivations or incentives to serve public interests? Do governments obtain adequate legitimacy to act on public behalf? Lastly, do the current global economic and political structures enable governments to perform their role independently? The first two questions are classic problems regarding government interventions, which have been disputed for a long time. The last questions are specifically related to governments in the developing nations.
This paper aims to consider state governance issues, concentrating on the governments in the developing nations, since these nations have relatively abundant resources, yet underdeveloped. Economically, developing nations are left behind by advance economies; accordingly, being a part of the next long wave upswing is a great opportunity to the citizens. In order to build theoretical ground, the discussion, firstly, draws attention to the Kondratieff cycle or wave, followed by further discussion on the failure of neo-liberalism economy and alternative from post-Keynesian economists including the role of states governance. Next discussion is dedicated to the problems regarding developing nations’ governments in promoting the fifth long wave upswing, then recommendations to these governments to promote the long wave upswing. Conclusion follows.
Kondratieff Wave
Kondratieff wave is a phenomenon of regularities observed in the global economy. Economic historians reveal that the global economy experiences certain cycles of boom and bust. More precisely they are similar to wave pattern, which involving upswing when the economy is flourished, and downswing when it experiences recessions. The economists can also predict the relative timeframes for these economic cycles. There are four economic cycles identified in the global economic history. They include Kitchin inventory cycle (3– 5 years), Juglar fixed investment cycle (7 – 11 years), Kuznets infrastructural investment cycle (15 – 25 years), and Kondratieff wave (45–60 years) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_cycle). These cycles, help the economists to construct better economic models, and guide the policy making (Reati & Toporowski, 2004). Socio-political economists normally base their economic thoughts on the Kondratieff long wave as it involves longer duration.
The Kondratieff long wave was suggested by Nikolai Kondratieff, springing from a Marxian perspective of long run movement of capitalism (Reita & Toporowski, 2004). There have been five Kondratieff long waves during the course of global industrialization (O’Hara, 2006a). First long wave, known as industrial revolution, underwent upswing in 1780s – 1810s and downswing from that on to 1840s. This wave was defined by water-powered machineries, and dominated by cotton, iron ore, and coal related industries. The next wave was large-scale industry (1850s – 1870s/ 1870s – 1890s) distinguished by steam-powered machineries and the introduction of telegraphs, railways and steamships. The third wave, finance capital and imperialism wave, (1890s – 1910s/1910s – 1940s) where steel, copper, and metal alloys was the main inputs in electrified industry, heavy engineering / chemicals and steel products. The fourth wave is known as postwar global fordism (1940s – 1970s/ 1970s – 1990s). This period was marked by internal combustion engines and mass production with the main inputs was oil, gas, and synthetic materials. The fifth wave is still a dispute among the scholars, yet it is believed that now world in the fifth long wave swing. Globalization and internet revolution are the markers for the fifth Kondratieff long wave (see O’Hara, 2006a and Reati & Toporowski, 2004).
Criticisms on the Neo-liberalism Economy
Despite plausible achievements, the neo-liberalism economy has been blamed for triggering global economic recession during 1980s – 2000s. Neo-liberalism, which rather concentrating on economic process than economic growth, has escalated global system imbalances and marginalized the functions of institutions. O’Hara (2005) summarizes the critics on the neo-liberalism economy as follows:
“…heterodox economists argue that the globalised neo-liberalism creates too many negative externalities, and also that it has a negative overall impact upon socioeconomic performance. They tend to see the 1950s and 1960s as the golden age of the Keynesian –Fordist state when social and economic progress occurred, while the gradual emergence of neo-liberal globalization led to problematic development into 1980s – 2000s. Recent times are said to have seen the emergence of many critical global, regional, and national financial crises, declining trust, deteriorating environmental performance, lower rate of per capita growth, and much slower productivity. Globalised neo-liberalism, therefore, has destroyed more than it has created in that it stimulates quick profit over long run rewards, financial dominance over industry, production rather than habitat preservation, and market over human relations.” (p.348).
Many scholars agree that leaving the global economy driven by the free market without adequate governments’ control is likely to result in the escalation of contradictions, which in turn will destroy the whole society. As further suggested by O’Hara (2006a), political economists reveal a large number of paradoxes or contradictions derived from free market economy. To name a few, focusing on supply side has weakened the demand power, which is equally important. Capitalism promotes capital to the highest position leading to the powerlessness of states and workers, unregulated economy, escalating financial speculations. These problems harm industry sector as the powerhouse of the economy. Profit maximization principle has sacrificed the environment, social relationship, and has further deepened the gap between those in center and periphery. Excessive competition has left almost no space for innovation and profit. These contradictions can be addressed, if there are institutions that work concertedly supporting the global economy, instead of leaving them to the work of ‘invisible hand’ in market oriented economy. For instance, neo-liberalism vis-à-vis free competition is believed to be unsustainable since market forces unrestrictedly mobilize economic resources from society to economic development process (dos Santos & da Silva, 2004). Free market principles have further marginalized the underdeveloped countries due to their inability to compete against the advance economies. Neo-liberalism has deprived the power of states to ensure public goods are sufficiently available and sustainable, including the carrying capacity of the planet earth. Short term profit maximizing, derived from aggravating rent-seeking behavior, and uncertainty, have resulted in excessive competition, lack of incentive for long term investment, and declining profit margin, hence lacking economic growth. The power of capital, which overwhelming labor bargaining power, has led to inadequate labor compensations. This has deteriorated purchasing power and global demand. Financial market speculation has further created uncertainty. These problems affect each other via circular – cumulative – causative ways. These facts lead scholars, such as Quiggin (2005), to argue that the economic liberalism has lost its power in global economy. Therefore, there is increasing demand for an alternative philosophy or ideology that bases the new economic policies and strategies.
Post-Keynesian Solutions and Role of Post-neoliberalism Governments
There are alternatives to cover the weaknesses, or solve the problems resulted from the employment of the economic liberalism. Post-Keynesian or neo-Marxist economists argue that the global economy requires institutions that work simultaneously to maintain the balance of the global economic functions (dos Santos & da Silva, 2004). In other words, the new long wave upswing pragmatically requires continuous combination between socialist strategies and the positive elements of the neo-liberalism ideology. These kinds of pragmatism strategies seem to dominate the magnitude of the future economic policies (Quiggin, 2005).
Post-Keynesians observe that the main problems of the economic recession are lacking global demand and enormous degree of uncertainty. These troubles root in the diminishing role of governments in protecting public interests from the free market invasion, as it mostly focuses on the supply side of the economic system. Therefore, the global economy is calling for the re-establishment of balanced institutions of governments, corporations, market, labor, society, or international relationship. Reati and Toporowski (2004) suggest several solutions to remediate the global economic problems. Firstly, it needs to boost the demand through macroeconomic policies that favoring innovations and promoting private consumption. They also urge to reestablish the primacy of productive capital to secure long term investment and curb the financial speculation. The third suggestion is to promote labor – capital equality, including the encouragement of full employment, adequate rewards and incentives for innovation, and technological improvement. The problem regarding flexibility of the labor force within the current dynamic economy is urged to be solved. They also suggest establishing a proper regime of intellectual rights that provide incentives to inventors and promote the transfer of knowledge and technology.
The above discussion implies that the state governance social structures of accumulation (SSA) are a very critical ingredient in order to make the post-Keynesian strategies work optimally. In conjunction to that, O’Hara (2005) urges post-neoliberalism governments to promote productive government roles and pragmatic policies in conjunction with public finance. The governments need to stimulate long term demand and global recovery, promote financial stability, global currency system, and value addition process to primary goods, continuously improve comparative advantage, and foster pro-social capital (O’Hara, 2005, p356 – 360).
The governments in developing countries, however, are unlikely to implement these policies effectively. The reasons are related to the issues of human resource quality, adequate incentives to serve the public interests, legitimacy or moral justification, and inadequate bargaining power resulted from current global socio-economic structures. These governments require favorable preconditions in order to convey their roles effectively. The following paragraphs take a closer look to problems regarding the ability of governments in developing countries.
Pre-requisite for an optimal state governance performance
Simply considering that governments will be able to serve the interests of the society is biased towards the reality. Boettke & Lesson (2004) when assessing the robustness of liberalism and socialism theories conclude that:
“Robust political economy requires that both the assumptions of agent benevolence and omniscience be relaxed, so that both incentive issues and knowledge problems can be adequately addressed.” (p.99).
Such kind of relaxing the real world conditions is only valid in theoretical level. There will be a real matter if scholars left aside the issue of knowledge, incentive, legitimacy, and autonomy of governments when deciding the best for the society. The above issues should be addressed to promote the effectiveness of governments’ functions. In developed countries, where the democracy has been implemented maturely, such preconditions may not be real concern, as voting power might be able to correct the system. Yet, for the developing countries, who just experiencing ‘trial and error’ with infant democratic system, or even still living in authoritarian regimes, election process is hardly to solve these problems.
Research conducted by the World Bank and other institutions, reveal that there is a strong relationship between good governance and the economic growth (Dollar & Pritchett, 1998), even though the relationship is not clear cut (Abdellatif, 2003). These scholars further argue that good macroeconomic management is a pre-requisite for economic growth. Accordingly, the issues of knowledge, motivation, and barrier to act on public behalf are significantly important when discussing governments’ roles in supporting the fifth long wave upswing. The countries like Botswana and Thailand who have good economic management reveal higher per capita growth than those that poorly managed. Dollar and Pritchett (1998) show that poor countries have potential for rapid growth if there are good managerial skills available. Therefore, it is crucial to clarify how these concerns obstruct these governments to play important roles in the next long wave upswing.
Knowledge
Knowledge is the first obstacle hampering the capability of the governments to conduct their role in providing the best alternative to support the society. Without adequate knowledge and information, these governments would not be able to decide, what are strategies and policies that can effectively curb their economic problems. As a matter of fact, the problem of lack of knowledge, in addition to other capacity constraints, has become the main hindrance for governance in developing nations. This concern has been realized by developed nations and international communities. It is proven by their supports in education programs, especially for the public servants from developing nations. Additionally, Brooks and Davidson (2002) in assessing the causes of the East Asian crisis, identify skilled labor shortages and ineffective policy setting as parts of primary and secondary supply-side constraints. Van den Berg (2001), as quoted in Brooks and Davidson (2002), reveals that developing nations’ average university graduates during early 2000s was 1.2 percent of population over twenty five years of age, compared to 21.3 percent of those in developed nations. Assuming these generations are now leading and managing developing countries, one can imagine the degree to which knowledge inadequacy is really impacting. The problem gets even worse, since the brilliant university graduates choose to work for the private institutions, which offering more benefits compared to low paying and bureaucratic career development in public sectors. For example, considerable numbers of government employees from developing countries, who undertake study in developed nations, are reluctant to go back to their home country after finishing study. Hence, issue of brain drain even further restraints the governments’ ability in developing nations. Lacking skills in public sectors leads to the appointment of ‘the wrong man to the wrong place’ which further complicating governance affairs.
Incentive or Motivation
Even if governments having adequate knowledge, what is the incentive for politicians and public servants in developing nations to provide the best service to the society? One may argue that they will lose their jobs through general elections as people vote against them. This is just valid only if the civil society is embraced; vis-à-vis fair democratic processes are applied, not governed by repressive regimes. Nevertheless, considering military coup in Thailand, civil protests related to elections in Mexico and Salomon Island, or authoritarian regimes in China and Singapore, one might think reinforcing governments’ motivation through democracy is a rocky path for developing nations.
Survey conducted by Overseas Development Institute (ODI), on political and governance in sixteen developing countries, reveals that the accountability of the political processes in these countries are very low (Hyde, Court & Mease, 2003). Given score one to five, the average accountability from these nations was just 2.28 or just over 45 percent. For example, the report states that:
“…Most countries do not have ‘recall’ system, which allow the electorate to call for an elected representative’s resignation during his term of service… The issue in many transitional societies, however, is that incumbents often have an advantage over their competitors and can ‘buy’ the support they need to get re-elected…”(Hyde, Court & Mease, 2003, p.24).
The authors, in their survey, also discover the ignorance of public interests by their representatives, such as in Peru, Argentina, Indonesia, and other developing countries. Corruption and political patronage are also real issues deteriorating democratic processes in those nations. Accordingly, democracy is not yet a reliable tool to promote good governance in developing nations.
Another reason, why there is not enough motivation for politicians and governments to work for the interest of their countries, is related to economic problem. Given the condition of lacking law enforcement and public control, public servants tend to abuse their positions for personal gains. Corruption, bribery, and other power abuses are widely encountered in developing nations, which often low payment used for justification. For example, many have objected the abuse of international financial debts that flow to developing nations, as most of them have been spent irresponsibly by governments, including being corrupted and used to increase the public servants’ salaries (Green, 2006).
Power abuses, especially corruption, have been a critical barrier to developing nations to utilize their economic resources effectively. Patrick Tucker (2006) explains the link between corruption and development in developing countries based on USAID report on anticorruption strategy as follows:
“…grand corruption (corruption at the highest governmental levels) may be less immediately visible than corruption among mid-level public officials. But Grand corruption is often more devastating to development because it diverts state institutions, as well as financial and natural resources, in order to meet private and elite goals. Additionally, law enforcement’s attempts to eliminate local power abuse are often crippled by corruption at the highest level.” (p.7).
Legitimacy
The next problem, regarding the role of governments is related to their legitimacy to decide policies and strategies that affect people either within their territory or outside. Group or personal agendas, whether they are legalized by national legislations or international agreements, in many cases are pursued at the costs of other nations or groups. Invasions to other nations that paralyzing local economic socio-economic activities, or the mobilization of resources from other part of nations to satisfy the interests of certain groups under territorial legalities, are the problems that inhibiting resources optimization in supporting the next long wave upswing.
The invasions to Iraq, by the United States and its allies, and to Afghanistan, have destroyed economic activities in these regions. Meanwhile, the decision of China to focus the development in the eastern coast, while leaving those in the west in the name of the economic development strategy, is of question; especially, concerning the rights of those in western regions to enjoy the same level of development or participate equally in economic processes. Or the case of Indonesia, where West Papuans’ natural resources being mobilized to western Indonesia, yet Jakarta refuses the demand for self-determination of those people. These issues are left unsolved. Territorial constraints and other international consensus have left them to the nations themselves to address. Nevertheless, the resources in these regions will not be employed optimally to promote the global upswing if such issues are not addressed.
Large number of political and civil unrests in developing nations, due to human right related problems, has weakened economic development in many developing nations. Stability and security are pre-requisites in promoting both foreign and domestic investments. Indeed, political stability plays important role in East Asian nations’ fast economic growth (Hughes, 1995). Governments in most of African nations, on the other hand, struggle to gain their legitimacy. Yet, the stable countries like Botswana economically are growing very well.
Independency
The current situation of economic and political structures is another problem for governments in developing nations to act independently, even though the problems of omniscience and benevolence are relaxed. Political and economic imbalances among the nations and strong financial power from multinational corporations have put the developing nations in a powerless position to serve their public interests. Developed nations often dictate what the developing nations have to do, especially when it comes to foreign aids or debts. Developing nations, especially those relying on foreign direct investment, are not uncommon securing the multinationals interests, instead of sustainable development interests. Accordingly, independency in policy and strategy implementations is a causative problem derived from global imbalances, which hampering sustainable development of developing nations.
Many developing countries are facing financial problems. Wealthy nations and international institutions, such as World Bank or IMF, normally provide aids and debts to these nations. In many cases, financial supports are equipped with guidelines, which often counter productive or even deteriorating the economic conditions. Good example for this is the IMF policies, which following the funds it provides to the countries that in financial crisis prior to Asian financial crisis. A most recent example is the grievance from non-governmental institutions, since the US allocates a lot of aid to the Afghanistan, yet the projects was designed by the United States and implemented by the US companies.
Multinational companies, given their strong financial power, often diminish the bargaining power of the governments in implementing effective policies or strategies. Revenues obtained from the operations of multinational companies often constitute large portion of the government incomes. In turn, the governments tend to protect the continuity of such sources of wealth, even though at cost of the public interests and unsustainable development. For instance, Indonesian government protects Freeport copper – gold mine in West Papua, regardless the fact that the company polluting the environment with its unpopular tailing disposal system. Further more, some small countries even become footloose in their economic policies due to multinational companies’ domination. As expressed by Swee and Low (1996) when explaining Singaporean’s experience:
“…discretionary policy to promote industries more intensive skills, capital and technology must be appreciated. The ultimate decisions of such industrial policy are, however, set by the multinational corporations (MNCs). The MNCs have the technological capability and access to world market. ... Singapore)* has little choice because technology and product lines are decided by MNCs.” (p.6,) * is added).
In short, governments from developing nations experience a large number of impediments when it comes to playing important roles in promoting the next long wave upswing. Lacking knowledge and motivation of the governments appears to be worsened in these nations compared to developed nations where democracy is working relatively effectively. Meanwhile, territorial and jurisdictional constraints have further left some domestic issues regarding resource efficiency and the right to participate to be solved internally by these governments. The issue of asymmetrical socio-economic-political structures, in terms of power of other nations and multinational companies, has also hampered the autonomy of developing nations in implementing the right policies and strategies even if they have adequate knowledge and integrity to do so. Accordingly, successful post-neoliberalism state governance needs to take into account the problems of the capacity constraints of governments from developing nations.
Boosting the economic development in developing nations
How the economic development in developing nations, especially those with low economic growth can be promoted? In addition to proposals from post-neoliberalism economists or further clarifying them, here are some additional recommendations. Encouraging the participation of the developing nations in the fifth long wave upswing requires both international participation and integral decision making from each nation. International involvements can come in terms of promoting the effective governance, developing human resources and promoting of the basic human rights in developing nations. Governments in developing nations are urged to mobilize the available resources they have, including the human resources and primary products, and promote niche industry based on their dynamic competitive advantage. Standard of living and quality of life should be the main concern of the developing nations in terms of infrastructure development and health, educational improvement.
Good governance is the first requirement to boost the developing nations’ participation in global economy. World Bank considers that the public sector management, accountability, legal frameworks and the accessibility of information should be addressed to promote good governance (Abdellatif, 2003). International community can assist the developing nations in promoting these dimensions. Support for improving the quality of public servants and reliable information can ease some knowledge related constraints. The promotion of justice and human rights through strengthening public control over governments and education can discourage the power abuses from government and politicians in the developing nations. Developing nations should consider good governance as basic requisite to promote sustainable economic growth. The economic crises happened in Indonesia during late nineties as a classic example of fast economic growth built under repressive state governance.
Secondly, human resources development, especially education, should become the main priority to the developing nations. International institutions and developed nations are encouraged to play important role to improve the quality of human resources in developing nations together with the domestic governments. On one hand, well educated citizens will help to boost economic growth domestically; on the other hand, surplus skilled workforces can be employed by nations that facing skilled workers shortages and aging population problems. For example, leaving aside other considerations, skilled workforce shortages in fast growing nations like Australia can be overcome by labor from the Pacific nations if they fulfill the required qualities. On the contrary, large number of nations in this region holds inadequate qualities of human resources that fulfill the requirements. Accordingly, both Australia and its neighbors are worse off.
The next issue is strengthening bargaining position of the governments of developing nations against pressures from international organizations, developed nations, and multinational corporations. A global solution on asymmetrical relationship among social structures of accumulation is strongly recommended for many developing nations are suffering from the related problems. This requires international institutions that continuously reinforcing the issues of accountability and equality of international, multilateral or bilateral, and foreign direct investment by multinational corporation relationships with developing nations. At the same time, governments from developing nations should realize that sustainable development is unlikely to achieve if relying on short term reactions or external pressures instead of comprehensive planning.
The fourth point is infrastructure development, especially transportation and telecommunication infrastructures in remote and underdeveloped regions of developing nations. Vast majority of people in developing nations are living in inadequate infrastructures that inhibiting them from economic and information networks. Such conditions lead to the inefficient employment of the economic resources in these regions. As a matter of fact, the network infrastructures are the effective ways of freeing these regions from isolation and enhancing their participation in such integrated global economy. For example, transportation and communication infrastructures are main considerations for the investors, when deciding to invest in remote regions of developing nations. Primary commodities in developing nations can be exploited and used to develop related industry if transportation and communication infrastructures are available.
The last recommendation to make is regarding the exploitation of comparative advantage. Developing nations are encouraged to optimize economic resources they have to boost their economic development. Referring to the success of the East Asian economic development, many economists such as Hughes (1995) and Krugman (1994) believe that economic resources mobilization is playing important parts in these nations economic development fast economic growth. Regarding comparative advantage, despite the problem of Prebisch-Singer hypothesis, natural resources are the best options to start with as they are location driven investments. The investors have to operate in the area where the natural resources are found. Therefore, promoting foreign direct investment in primary commodity sector is a viable option to the developing nations as their natural resources yet to be developed. Additionally, large number of developing nations experiencing increasing revenues from natural resource sector such as African, Latin American, and Middle Eastern nations (UNCTAD, 2005). Furthermore, niche industry supported by the available primary industry can be developed. Relatively fast developing nations like Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia started of their economic development based on primary commodities (Hughes, 1995).
Conclusion
Moving towards the fifth Kondratieff long wave, many are being bothered whether state governance social structures of accumulation are ready to promote it. As argued by post-neoliberalism economists, economic liberalism in circular – cumulative – causative ways has created large numbers of externalities, including to the establishment of unbalanced functions of institutions including state governance. Accordingly, they propose reestablishment of the power of institutions especially governments. They are urged to undertake important roles in promoting the fifth long wave upswing. The leaders from these nations are recommended to promote productive and pragmatic public financial roles. They are also required to stimulate long term demand and global recovery, promoting financial stability, global currency system, promoting value addition process to primary goods, continuously improving comparative advantage, and fostering pro-social capital.
These proposals are unlikely to be implemented successfully by the governments in developing nations due to the problems of knowledge, motivation, legitimacy, and independency of these governments. Knowledge is the first issue hampering the ability of the governments of developing due to lack of qualified human resources and access to reliable information. These hindrances cause ineffective decision making. Secondly, democracy is hardly to motivate the governments in these nations to serve the interests of their public. Hence, power abuse for personal gains remains critical concern in the developing nations. Thirdly, some governments under national legal frameworks or international agreements undermine the rights of certain groups of people including exploiting their resources without giving back to such regions. It results in human rights violation and economic inefficiency. The last issue is regarding the ability of the developing nations’ governments to act independently without pressure from international institutions, powerful nations and multinational corporations. In many cases, these governments are unable to preserve their autonomy as they relying heavily on these institutions.
In order to incorporate the governments and developing nations to play pivotal roles in promoting long wave economic upswing, here are several issues that need to be dealt with by both international institutions or developed nations and governments from developing nations. Securing the new long wave upswing promotions need to promote good governance in developing nations. Next, human resources development vis-à-vis education should be the main concern. Third proposal is improving the bargaining power of developing nations against international institutions, developed nations, and multinational enterprises, through the promotion of accountability and equality relationships. Transportation and telecommunication infrastructures development are important in order to alleviate the economic resources mobilization and tie up such regions to global economic networks. Primary commodity development is likely to bases the next step of the industrialization in developing countries since natural resources are location driven comparative advantage.
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Introduction
Based on circular – cumulative – causative (CCC) principle, proposed by socio-political economists, agents involve in global economy are interdependent. Promoting specific sectors while undermining the rests is, therefore, prone to failure. Hence, global economic problems should be addressed through holistic and integrative policies and strategies. As a matter of fact, they argue that the negative side of the economic development should be treated as inextricable results of economic development, not as externalities suggested by liberalism economists.
Even though the current stage of the global economy is dominated by free market principles, to some extent, the interventions of governments still exist (Ricupero, 1997). Nevertheless, many challenge the effectiveness of their involvements (Boettke & Leeson (2004), Hertel, (2003)). Hesitation over governments’ ability has reasonable ground, in particular concerning those in developing nations. Given the current state of affairs, the question is then: are these governments able to promote the fifth global economic upswing? To clarify the above issue, the following questions need to be considered furthermore. Do governments have adequate knowledge to provide effective policies? Do politicians and public servants have reasonable motivations or incentives to serve public interests? Do governments obtain adequate legitimacy to act on public behalf? Lastly, do the current global economic and political structures enable governments to perform their role independently? The first two questions are classic problems regarding government interventions, which have been disputed for a long time. The last questions are specifically related to governments in the developing nations.
This paper aims to consider state governance issues, concentrating on the governments in the developing nations, since these nations have relatively abundant resources, yet underdeveloped. Economically, developing nations are left behind by advance economies; accordingly, being a part of the next long wave upswing is a great opportunity to the citizens. In order to build theoretical ground, the discussion, firstly, draws attention to the Kondratieff cycle or wave, followed by further discussion on the failure of neo-liberalism economy and alternative from post-Keynesian economists including the role of states governance. Next discussion is dedicated to the problems regarding developing nations’ governments in promoting the fifth long wave upswing, then recommendations to these governments to promote the long wave upswing. Conclusion follows.
Kondratieff Wave
Kondratieff wave is a phenomenon of regularities observed in the global economy. Economic historians reveal that the global economy experiences certain cycles of boom and bust. More precisely they are similar to wave pattern, which involving upswing when the economy is flourished, and downswing when it experiences recessions. The economists can also predict the relative timeframes for these economic cycles. There are four economic cycles identified in the global economic history. They include Kitchin inventory cycle (3– 5 years), Juglar fixed investment cycle (7 – 11 years), Kuznets infrastructural investment cycle (15 – 25 years), and Kondratieff wave (45–60 years) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_cycle). These cycles, help the economists to construct better economic models, and guide the policy making (Reati & Toporowski, 2004). Socio-political economists normally base their economic thoughts on the Kondratieff long wave as it involves longer duration.
The Kondratieff long wave was suggested by Nikolai Kondratieff, springing from a Marxian perspective of long run movement of capitalism (Reita & Toporowski, 2004). There have been five Kondratieff long waves during the course of global industrialization (O’Hara, 2006a). First long wave, known as industrial revolution, underwent upswing in 1780s – 1810s and downswing from that on to 1840s. This wave was defined by water-powered machineries, and dominated by cotton, iron ore, and coal related industries. The next wave was large-scale industry (1850s – 1870s/ 1870s – 1890s) distinguished by steam-powered machineries and the introduction of telegraphs, railways and steamships. The third wave, finance capital and imperialism wave, (1890s – 1910s/1910s – 1940s) where steel, copper, and metal alloys was the main inputs in electrified industry, heavy engineering / chemicals and steel products. The fourth wave is known as postwar global fordism (1940s – 1970s/ 1970s – 1990s). This period was marked by internal combustion engines and mass production with the main inputs was oil, gas, and synthetic materials. The fifth wave is still a dispute among the scholars, yet it is believed that now world in the fifth long wave swing. Globalization and internet revolution are the markers for the fifth Kondratieff long wave (see O’Hara, 2006a and Reati & Toporowski, 2004).
Criticisms on the Neo-liberalism Economy
Despite plausible achievements, the neo-liberalism economy has been blamed for triggering global economic recession during 1980s – 2000s. Neo-liberalism, which rather concentrating on economic process than economic growth, has escalated global system imbalances and marginalized the functions of institutions. O’Hara (2005) summarizes the critics on the neo-liberalism economy as follows:
“…heterodox economists argue that the globalised neo-liberalism creates too many negative externalities, and also that it has a negative overall impact upon socioeconomic performance. They tend to see the 1950s and 1960s as the golden age of the Keynesian –Fordist state when social and economic progress occurred, while the gradual emergence of neo-liberal globalization led to problematic development into 1980s – 2000s. Recent times are said to have seen the emergence of many critical global, regional, and national financial crises, declining trust, deteriorating environmental performance, lower rate of per capita growth, and much slower productivity. Globalised neo-liberalism, therefore, has destroyed more than it has created in that it stimulates quick profit over long run rewards, financial dominance over industry, production rather than habitat preservation, and market over human relations.” (p.348).
Many scholars agree that leaving the global economy driven by the free market without adequate governments’ control is likely to result in the escalation of contradictions, which in turn will destroy the whole society. As further suggested by O’Hara (2006a), political economists reveal a large number of paradoxes or contradictions derived from free market economy. To name a few, focusing on supply side has weakened the demand power, which is equally important. Capitalism promotes capital to the highest position leading to the powerlessness of states and workers, unregulated economy, escalating financial speculations. These problems harm industry sector as the powerhouse of the economy. Profit maximization principle has sacrificed the environment, social relationship, and has further deepened the gap between those in center and periphery. Excessive competition has left almost no space for innovation and profit. These contradictions can be addressed, if there are institutions that work concertedly supporting the global economy, instead of leaving them to the work of ‘invisible hand’ in market oriented economy. For instance, neo-liberalism vis-à-vis free competition is believed to be unsustainable since market forces unrestrictedly mobilize economic resources from society to economic development process (dos Santos & da Silva, 2004). Free market principles have further marginalized the underdeveloped countries due to their inability to compete against the advance economies. Neo-liberalism has deprived the power of states to ensure public goods are sufficiently available and sustainable, including the carrying capacity of the planet earth. Short term profit maximizing, derived from aggravating rent-seeking behavior, and uncertainty, have resulted in excessive competition, lack of incentive for long term investment, and declining profit margin, hence lacking economic growth. The power of capital, which overwhelming labor bargaining power, has led to inadequate labor compensations. This has deteriorated purchasing power and global demand. Financial market speculation has further created uncertainty. These problems affect each other via circular – cumulative – causative ways. These facts lead scholars, such as Quiggin (2005), to argue that the economic liberalism has lost its power in global economy. Therefore, there is increasing demand for an alternative philosophy or ideology that bases the new economic policies and strategies.
Post-Keynesian Solutions and Role of Post-neoliberalism Governments
There are alternatives to cover the weaknesses, or solve the problems resulted from the employment of the economic liberalism. Post-Keynesian or neo-Marxist economists argue that the global economy requires institutions that work simultaneously to maintain the balance of the global economic functions (dos Santos & da Silva, 2004). In other words, the new long wave upswing pragmatically requires continuous combination between socialist strategies and the positive elements of the neo-liberalism ideology. These kinds of pragmatism strategies seem to dominate the magnitude of the future economic policies (Quiggin, 2005).
Post-Keynesians observe that the main problems of the economic recession are lacking global demand and enormous degree of uncertainty. These troubles root in the diminishing role of governments in protecting public interests from the free market invasion, as it mostly focuses on the supply side of the economic system. Therefore, the global economy is calling for the re-establishment of balanced institutions of governments, corporations, market, labor, society, or international relationship. Reati and Toporowski (2004) suggest several solutions to remediate the global economic problems. Firstly, it needs to boost the demand through macroeconomic policies that favoring innovations and promoting private consumption. They also urge to reestablish the primacy of productive capital to secure long term investment and curb the financial speculation. The third suggestion is to promote labor – capital equality, including the encouragement of full employment, adequate rewards and incentives for innovation, and technological improvement. The problem regarding flexibility of the labor force within the current dynamic economy is urged to be solved. They also suggest establishing a proper regime of intellectual rights that provide incentives to inventors and promote the transfer of knowledge and technology.
The above discussion implies that the state governance social structures of accumulation (SSA) are a very critical ingredient in order to make the post-Keynesian strategies work optimally. In conjunction to that, O’Hara (2005) urges post-neoliberalism governments to promote productive government roles and pragmatic policies in conjunction with public finance. The governments need to stimulate long term demand and global recovery, promote financial stability, global currency system, and value addition process to primary goods, continuously improve comparative advantage, and foster pro-social capital (O’Hara, 2005, p356 – 360).
The governments in developing countries, however, are unlikely to implement these policies effectively. The reasons are related to the issues of human resource quality, adequate incentives to serve the public interests, legitimacy or moral justification, and inadequate bargaining power resulted from current global socio-economic structures. These governments require favorable preconditions in order to convey their roles effectively. The following paragraphs take a closer look to problems regarding the ability of governments in developing countries.
Pre-requisite for an optimal state governance performance
Simply considering that governments will be able to serve the interests of the society is biased towards the reality. Boettke & Lesson (2004) when assessing the robustness of liberalism and socialism theories conclude that:
“Robust political economy requires that both the assumptions of agent benevolence and omniscience be relaxed, so that both incentive issues and knowledge problems can be adequately addressed.” (p.99).
Such kind of relaxing the real world conditions is only valid in theoretical level. There will be a real matter if scholars left aside the issue of knowledge, incentive, legitimacy, and autonomy of governments when deciding the best for the society. The above issues should be addressed to promote the effectiveness of governments’ functions. In developed countries, where the democracy has been implemented maturely, such preconditions may not be real concern, as voting power might be able to correct the system. Yet, for the developing countries, who just experiencing ‘trial and error’ with infant democratic system, or even still living in authoritarian regimes, election process is hardly to solve these problems.
Research conducted by the World Bank and other institutions, reveal that there is a strong relationship between good governance and the economic growth (Dollar & Pritchett, 1998), even though the relationship is not clear cut (Abdellatif, 2003). These scholars further argue that good macroeconomic management is a pre-requisite for economic growth. Accordingly, the issues of knowledge, motivation, and barrier to act on public behalf are significantly important when discussing governments’ roles in supporting the fifth long wave upswing. The countries like Botswana and Thailand who have good economic management reveal higher per capita growth than those that poorly managed. Dollar and Pritchett (1998) show that poor countries have potential for rapid growth if there are good managerial skills available. Therefore, it is crucial to clarify how these concerns obstruct these governments to play important roles in the next long wave upswing.
Knowledge
Knowledge is the first obstacle hampering the capability of the governments to conduct their role in providing the best alternative to support the society. Without adequate knowledge and information, these governments would not be able to decide, what are strategies and policies that can effectively curb their economic problems. As a matter of fact, the problem of lack of knowledge, in addition to other capacity constraints, has become the main hindrance for governance in developing nations. This concern has been realized by developed nations and international communities. It is proven by their supports in education programs, especially for the public servants from developing nations. Additionally, Brooks and Davidson (2002) in assessing the causes of the East Asian crisis, identify skilled labor shortages and ineffective policy setting as parts of primary and secondary supply-side constraints. Van den Berg (2001), as quoted in Brooks and Davidson (2002), reveals that developing nations’ average university graduates during early 2000s was 1.2 percent of population over twenty five years of age, compared to 21.3 percent of those in developed nations. Assuming these generations are now leading and managing developing countries, one can imagine the degree to which knowledge inadequacy is really impacting. The problem gets even worse, since the brilliant university graduates choose to work for the private institutions, which offering more benefits compared to low paying and bureaucratic career development in public sectors. For example, considerable numbers of government employees from developing countries, who undertake study in developed nations, are reluctant to go back to their home country after finishing study. Hence, issue of brain drain even further restraints the governments’ ability in developing nations. Lacking skills in public sectors leads to the appointment of ‘the wrong man to the wrong place’ which further complicating governance affairs.
Incentive or Motivation
Even if governments having adequate knowledge, what is the incentive for politicians and public servants in developing nations to provide the best service to the society? One may argue that they will lose their jobs through general elections as people vote against them. This is just valid only if the civil society is embraced; vis-à-vis fair democratic processes are applied, not governed by repressive regimes. Nevertheless, considering military coup in Thailand, civil protests related to elections in Mexico and Salomon Island, or authoritarian regimes in China and Singapore, one might think reinforcing governments’ motivation through democracy is a rocky path for developing nations.
Survey conducted by Overseas Development Institute (ODI), on political and governance in sixteen developing countries, reveals that the accountability of the political processes in these countries are very low (Hyde, Court & Mease, 2003). Given score one to five, the average accountability from these nations was just 2.28 or just over 45 percent. For example, the report states that:
“…Most countries do not have ‘recall’ system, which allow the electorate to call for an elected representative’s resignation during his term of service… The issue in many transitional societies, however, is that incumbents often have an advantage over their competitors and can ‘buy’ the support they need to get re-elected…”(Hyde, Court & Mease, 2003, p.24).
The authors, in their survey, also discover the ignorance of public interests by their representatives, such as in Peru, Argentina, Indonesia, and other developing countries. Corruption and political patronage are also real issues deteriorating democratic processes in those nations. Accordingly, democracy is not yet a reliable tool to promote good governance in developing nations.
Another reason, why there is not enough motivation for politicians and governments to work for the interest of their countries, is related to economic problem. Given the condition of lacking law enforcement and public control, public servants tend to abuse their positions for personal gains. Corruption, bribery, and other power abuses are widely encountered in developing nations, which often low payment used for justification. For example, many have objected the abuse of international financial debts that flow to developing nations, as most of them have been spent irresponsibly by governments, including being corrupted and used to increase the public servants’ salaries (Green, 2006).
Power abuses, especially corruption, have been a critical barrier to developing nations to utilize their economic resources effectively. Patrick Tucker (2006) explains the link between corruption and development in developing countries based on USAID report on anticorruption strategy as follows:
“…grand corruption (corruption at the highest governmental levels) may be less immediately visible than corruption among mid-level public officials. But Grand corruption is often more devastating to development because it diverts state institutions, as well as financial and natural resources, in order to meet private and elite goals. Additionally, law enforcement’s attempts to eliminate local power abuse are often crippled by corruption at the highest level.” (p.7).
Legitimacy
The next problem, regarding the role of governments is related to their legitimacy to decide policies and strategies that affect people either within their territory or outside. Group or personal agendas, whether they are legalized by national legislations or international agreements, in many cases are pursued at the costs of other nations or groups. Invasions to other nations that paralyzing local economic socio-economic activities, or the mobilization of resources from other part of nations to satisfy the interests of certain groups under territorial legalities, are the problems that inhibiting resources optimization in supporting the next long wave upswing.
The invasions to Iraq, by the United States and its allies, and to Afghanistan, have destroyed economic activities in these regions. Meanwhile, the decision of China to focus the development in the eastern coast, while leaving those in the west in the name of the economic development strategy, is of question; especially, concerning the rights of those in western regions to enjoy the same level of development or participate equally in economic processes. Or the case of Indonesia, where West Papuans’ natural resources being mobilized to western Indonesia, yet Jakarta refuses the demand for self-determination of those people. These issues are left unsolved. Territorial constraints and other international consensus have left them to the nations themselves to address. Nevertheless, the resources in these regions will not be employed optimally to promote the global upswing if such issues are not addressed.
Large number of political and civil unrests in developing nations, due to human right related problems, has weakened economic development in many developing nations. Stability and security are pre-requisites in promoting both foreign and domestic investments. Indeed, political stability plays important role in East Asian nations’ fast economic growth (Hughes, 1995). Governments in most of African nations, on the other hand, struggle to gain their legitimacy. Yet, the stable countries like Botswana economically are growing very well.
Independency
The current situation of economic and political structures is another problem for governments in developing nations to act independently, even though the problems of omniscience and benevolence are relaxed. Political and economic imbalances among the nations and strong financial power from multinational corporations have put the developing nations in a powerless position to serve their public interests. Developed nations often dictate what the developing nations have to do, especially when it comes to foreign aids or debts. Developing nations, especially those relying on foreign direct investment, are not uncommon securing the multinationals interests, instead of sustainable development interests. Accordingly, independency in policy and strategy implementations is a causative problem derived from global imbalances, which hampering sustainable development of developing nations.
Many developing countries are facing financial problems. Wealthy nations and international institutions, such as World Bank or IMF, normally provide aids and debts to these nations. In many cases, financial supports are equipped with guidelines, which often counter productive or even deteriorating the economic conditions. Good example for this is the IMF policies, which following the funds it provides to the countries that in financial crisis prior to Asian financial crisis. A most recent example is the grievance from non-governmental institutions, since the US allocates a lot of aid to the Afghanistan, yet the projects was designed by the United States and implemented by the US companies.
Multinational companies, given their strong financial power, often diminish the bargaining power of the governments in implementing effective policies or strategies. Revenues obtained from the operations of multinational companies often constitute large portion of the government incomes. In turn, the governments tend to protect the continuity of such sources of wealth, even though at cost of the public interests and unsustainable development. For instance, Indonesian government protects Freeport copper – gold mine in West Papua, regardless the fact that the company polluting the environment with its unpopular tailing disposal system. Further more, some small countries even become footloose in their economic policies due to multinational companies’ domination. As expressed by Swee and Low (1996) when explaining Singaporean’s experience:
“…discretionary policy to promote industries more intensive skills, capital and technology must be appreciated. The ultimate decisions of such industrial policy are, however, set by the multinational corporations (MNCs). The MNCs have the technological capability and access to world market. ... Singapore)* has little choice because technology and product lines are decided by MNCs.” (p.6,) * is added).
In short, governments from developing nations experience a large number of impediments when it comes to playing important roles in promoting the next long wave upswing. Lacking knowledge and motivation of the governments appears to be worsened in these nations compared to developed nations where democracy is working relatively effectively. Meanwhile, territorial and jurisdictional constraints have further left some domestic issues regarding resource efficiency and the right to participate to be solved internally by these governments. The issue of asymmetrical socio-economic-political structures, in terms of power of other nations and multinational companies, has also hampered the autonomy of developing nations in implementing the right policies and strategies even if they have adequate knowledge and integrity to do so. Accordingly, successful post-neoliberalism state governance needs to take into account the problems of the capacity constraints of governments from developing nations.
Boosting the economic development in developing nations
How the economic development in developing nations, especially those with low economic growth can be promoted? In addition to proposals from post-neoliberalism economists or further clarifying them, here are some additional recommendations. Encouraging the participation of the developing nations in the fifth long wave upswing requires both international participation and integral decision making from each nation. International involvements can come in terms of promoting the effective governance, developing human resources and promoting of the basic human rights in developing nations. Governments in developing nations are urged to mobilize the available resources they have, including the human resources and primary products, and promote niche industry based on their dynamic competitive advantage. Standard of living and quality of life should be the main concern of the developing nations in terms of infrastructure development and health, educational improvement.
Good governance is the first requirement to boost the developing nations’ participation in global economy. World Bank considers that the public sector management, accountability, legal frameworks and the accessibility of information should be addressed to promote good governance (Abdellatif, 2003). International community can assist the developing nations in promoting these dimensions. Support for improving the quality of public servants and reliable information can ease some knowledge related constraints. The promotion of justice and human rights through strengthening public control over governments and education can discourage the power abuses from government and politicians in the developing nations. Developing nations should consider good governance as basic requisite to promote sustainable economic growth. The economic crises happened in Indonesia during late nineties as a classic example of fast economic growth built under repressive state governance.
Secondly, human resources development, especially education, should become the main priority to the developing nations. International institutions and developed nations are encouraged to play important role to improve the quality of human resources in developing nations together with the domestic governments. On one hand, well educated citizens will help to boost economic growth domestically; on the other hand, surplus skilled workforces can be employed by nations that facing skilled workers shortages and aging population problems. For example, leaving aside other considerations, skilled workforce shortages in fast growing nations like Australia can be overcome by labor from the Pacific nations if they fulfill the required qualities. On the contrary, large number of nations in this region holds inadequate qualities of human resources that fulfill the requirements. Accordingly, both Australia and its neighbors are worse off.
The next issue is strengthening bargaining position of the governments of developing nations against pressures from international organizations, developed nations, and multinational corporations. A global solution on asymmetrical relationship among social structures of accumulation is strongly recommended for many developing nations are suffering from the related problems. This requires international institutions that continuously reinforcing the issues of accountability and equality of international, multilateral or bilateral, and foreign direct investment by multinational corporation relationships with developing nations. At the same time, governments from developing nations should realize that sustainable development is unlikely to achieve if relying on short term reactions or external pressures instead of comprehensive planning.
The fourth point is infrastructure development, especially transportation and telecommunication infrastructures in remote and underdeveloped regions of developing nations. Vast majority of people in developing nations are living in inadequate infrastructures that inhibiting them from economic and information networks. Such conditions lead to the inefficient employment of the economic resources in these regions. As a matter of fact, the network infrastructures are the effective ways of freeing these regions from isolation and enhancing their participation in such integrated global economy. For example, transportation and communication infrastructures are main considerations for the investors, when deciding to invest in remote regions of developing nations. Primary commodities in developing nations can be exploited and used to develop related industry if transportation and communication infrastructures are available.
The last recommendation to make is regarding the exploitation of comparative advantage. Developing nations are encouraged to optimize economic resources they have to boost their economic development. Referring to the success of the East Asian economic development, many economists such as Hughes (1995) and Krugman (1994) believe that economic resources mobilization is playing important parts in these nations economic development fast economic growth. Regarding comparative advantage, despite the problem of Prebisch-Singer hypothesis, natural resources are the best options to start with as they are location driven investments. The investors have to operate in the area where the natural resources are found. Therefore, promoting foreign direct investment in primary commodity sector is a viable option to the developing nations as their natural resources yet to be developed. Additionally, large number of developing nations experiencing increasing revenues from natural resource sector such as African, Latin American, and Middle Eastern nations (UNCTAD, 2005). Furthermore, niche industry supported by the available primary industry can be developed. Relatively fast developing nations like Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia started of their economic development based on primary commodities (Hughes, 1995).
Conclusion
Moving towards the fifth Kondratieff long wave, many are being bothered whether state governance social structures of accumulation are ready to promote it. As argued by post-neoliberalism economists, economic liberalism in circular – cumulative – causative ways has created large numbers of externalities, including to the establishment of unbalanced functions of institutions including state governance. Accordingly, they propose reestablishment of the power of institutions especially governments. They are urged to undertake important roles in promoting the fifth long wave upswing. The leaders from these nations are recommended to promote productive and pragmatic public financial roles. They are also required to stimulate long term demand and global recovery, promoting financial stability, global currency system, promoting value addition process to primary goods, continuously improving comparative advantage, and fostering pro-social capital.
These proposals are unlikely to be implemented successfully by the governments in developing nations due to the problems of knowledge, motivation, legitimacy, and independency of these governments. Knowledge is the first issue hampering the ability of the governments of developing due to lack of qualified human resources and access to reliable information. These hindrances cause ineffective decision making. Secondly, democracy is hardly to motivate the governments in these nations to serve the interests of their public. Hence, power abuse for personal gains remains critical concern in the developing nations. Thirdly, some governments under national legal frameworks or international agreements undermine the rights of certain groups of people including exploiting their resources without giving back to such regions. It results in human rights violation and economic inefficiency. The last issue is regarding the ability of the developing nations’ governments to act independently without pressure from international institutions, powerful nations and multinational corporations. In many cases, these governments are unable to preserve their autonomy as they relying heavily on these institutions.
In order to incorporate the governments and developing nations to play pivotal roles in promoting long wave economic upswing, here are several issues that need to be dealt with by both international institutions or developed nations and governments from developing nations. Securing the new long wave upswing promotions need to promote good governance in developing nations. Next, human resources development vis-à-vis education should be the main concern. Third proposal is improving the bargaining power of developing nations against international institutions, developed nations, and multinational enterprises, through the promotion of accountability and equality relationships. Transportation and telecommunication infrastructures development are important in order to alleviate the economic resources mobilization and tie up such regions to global economic networks. Primary commodity development is likely to bases the next step of the industrialization in developing countries since natural resources are location driven comparative advantage.
References
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Wednesday, 26 November 2008
THE INDONESIAN OIL AND GAS COMPETITIVENESS
A PORTER’S DIAMOND BASED ANALYSIS
By Herman Seran
Introduction
As of May 2006, the spot price for crude oil in NYMEX has been around US$70 per barrel or almost twice of that in April 2003. This is a fortune for oil production countries. As an oil and gas producer, Indonesia may benefit from this windfall mirroring its experience before the Asian financial crisis. Prior to crisis, the country’s economic development was strongly supported oil and gas booming during 1970s to 1980s (Gylfason, 2001, Susastro, nd, Temple, 2001). Will Indonesia benefit from the current oil booming? This paper aims to address the question by considering the country’s competitive advantage in the industry employing Porter’s Diamond model.Exploring the Indonesian chance to benefit from this current energy booming implies consideration on the advantages of the country to compete in global energy market. The question is, therefore, what are the competitive advantages of Indonesian oil and gas industry to compete globally or at least play significant role in Asia Pacific oil and gas market. Accordingly, the paper approaches this issue by firstly, briefly discussing the Indonesian macroeconomic position with specific consideration on the role of the oil and gas industry. Secondly, the theory of international competitiveness is touched on briefly to contextualize the Porter’s Diamond model. Thirdly, the current condition of the Indonesian oil and gas industry is assessed employing the Porter’s national competitive advantage determinants.
Economic Indicators and the Role of Oil and Gas Industry
Economic Indicator
The Indonesian economy suffered the most from the 1998 financial crisis. The GDP sharply slumped reaching the lowest level since 1966 at nearly -15% (Temple, 2001). However, as well as political reform, the economic growth has steadily reached the pre-crisis level. Asian Development Bank reported that the GDP growth in 2005 was 5.6%, a significant increase from 3.8% in 2001 (ADB, 2006). Meanwhile, fiscal deficit has encouragingly declined below one percent. The outstanding problems are lowering inflation which experienced a bleak trend during the final quarter, boosting the export which has downed to 13% GDP (17% before crisis), and creating jobs for 2.5 million annual increasing labour forces.
The experts predict a slower economic growth in 2006, due to the current domestic situation, and global issues like spiking oil prices and increasing the US interest rate. Indonesian Central Bank predicts the GDP growth in 2006 will range from 5% to 5.7% (BI, 2006). Meanwhile, the Asian development Bank predicts GDP growth will likely be 5.4% (ADB, 2006).
Indonesian Oil and Gas Industry
Petroleum industry has contributed significantly to the Indonesian economy. As of 2004, the country’s oil and gas reserves were predicted to be 4.7 billion barrels and 2.56 trillion cubic-meters (BP, 2005). It has been argued that natural resource endowment underpinning the Indonesian high economic performance during 1966 to 1998 (Gylfason, 2001, Temple, 2001). Hayashi (2005) reveals that petroleum industry significantly shaped the GDP per capita during 1965 to 2000. For instance, World Energy Council predicts the industry represented 66% of total domestic earnings and 76% of export earnings in 1983 (WEC, 2005).
Nevertheless, soaring domestic demand and continuous decline in oil production since 1994 have made the country a net oil importer in 2004, for the first time ever. Yet, this decline was compensated relatively by growing export in natural gas.
There have been various explanations for the decline in production and increase in domestic consumption. Well exhaustion is the main reason for the down trend of the production (Tse, 2001). Meanwhile, lacking exploration and new discovery are the next contributors (ADB, 2006), in addition to socio-political reasons and OPEC’s strategy to boost oil prices. For example, Exxon-Mobil’s gas production in Aceh was disrupted due to the security problem, while old wells’ production in Cepu, Central Java, has significantly declined. When it comes to consumption, the increase in standard of living may be the explanation. Several analysts, including Asian Development Bank, believe that Indonesian long term oil subsidy was the main trigger for strong domestic consumption (ADB, 2006).
By no means to underestimate the exhaustive and cyclical nature of oil and gas, the country will continue to benefit from the industry, in terms of national export, the source of FDI, and economic multiple effect. Decision to remove most of the oil subsidy is believed to lower the domestic consumption. Thus, the trend of investment in the oil and gas sector indicates an encouraging sign, though the conducive investment condition is still of concern. For example, the recent agreement between the Exxon-Mobil and Pertamina regarding Cepu oil field is a positive precedent to the future investment in the industry (ADB, 2006). This field will contribute approximately 20% of the current daily production (Rigzone News, 2006). Nonetheless, in the next decade the capacity of production is believed to be lower compared to 1999 level (Miriawati, 2004).
International Competitiveness and Porter’s Diamond Model
A country is internationally competitive in a certain industry if it has “the ability to provide internationally a quality product, promptly at a reasonable price” (Gapinski, 2001. p37). To compete in such global environment, a country requires certain advantage over the others which has to be maintained continuously. The term ‘advantage’ is proposed by Adam Smith in 1776 in his book The Wealth of Nations. Smith suggests ‘absolute advantage’ as the explanation for international trade as opposed to mercantilism principle ‘zero sum game’, which has been previously criticized by Hume in 1752 (Gionea, 2004).
The absolute advantage theory is then enhanced by David Ricardo in 1817, by introducing ‘comparative advantage’. Ricardo encourages countries to trade among each other by dedicating their factors of production to the most efficient sectors and obtaining the rest through international trade. Meanwhile, the Hecksher – Ohlin (factor endowment) theory aims to explain the pattern of international trade by revealing that countries are likely to export goods they produce with their abundance factors of production and import what is produced with the factors they scarcely have (Gionea, 2004).
The Porter’s diamond model aims to integrate the previous international trade theories. The model is based on the principle of competition among the nations, by exploiting their competitive advantages and continuously improving them through innovation and technological improvement (Porter, 1990). Porter argues that there are six determinants explaining competitiveness of a country. The determinants form a mutually reinforcing ‘diamond’ system. They are factor endowment, demand condition, related and supporting industries, firm strategy, structure and rivalry, the role of government and chance.
Summarizing his points, factor endowment is divided into basic factors including natural resources, climate, location semiskilled labour, debt capital; and advance factor involving modern infrastructure and skilled human resources and modern technology. These factors are only competitive if they are effectively utilized. Porter stresses the domestic demand as the primary driver for competitiveness. Nevertheless, international demand is likely to the main interest in natural resources sector. Related and supporting industries are very important in helping a firm compete internationally such as suppliers and services industries. Internal condition such as firm structure and strategy in competing domestic rivals is also one of the determinants. Porter believes in the role of the governments is providing supportive environment or the other way around. Finally, chance is factors beyond the control of the industry or government such as economic cycle, war and alike that may influence the competitiveness.
Indonesian Oil and Gas Industry Competitiveness
Factor Endowment
Indonesia has been recognized as one of the oil and gas rich country. Its membership in the OPEC is in support of this argument. In terms of basic factor endowment, the country has significant oil and gas reserves that can compete globally, especially in Asia Pacific region. BP (2005), for example, predicts that Indonesia is one of the largest oil and gas reserves in Asia Pacific as revealed in table 2. Its strategic location near the fast growing economies such as China and Singapore is another advantage. Furthermore, the 240-million population indicates a massive number of potential workforces.
Indonesia is relatively competitive in terms of advance factors. The country is now able to provide skilled workforce to the oil and gas industry. Most of the oil and gas companies employ domestic geologists and engineers. There are hundreds annual graduates from oil and gas related programs from Indonesian universities, though yet to be internationally recognized. There is also large number of operators that have acquired recognizable experiences. These achievements can be seen from increasing number of Indonesian skilled workers employed overseas in natural resources sector, such as Qatar, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam and Australia. A problem regarding advance factors is high cost communication technology, yet limited coverage. Nevertheless, natural resources companies overcome it by using satellite communication.
Demand condition
Even though strong domestic demand is not the primary concern, nonetheless, it may significantly shape the pattern of the trade. The domestic oil demand is currently getting stronger; gas demand is likewise though in a slower rate. By 2004, the oil consumption has exceeded the production reaching 1.15 million barrels per day, forcing the country to import crude oil. Nevertheless, gas export continues to grow thanks to low domestic demand.
The international consumption has outpaced the global production. The global oil demand has increased reaching 80.76 million barrels per day or nearly 3.4% increase from 2003 consumption level. This number reveals nearly 0.5 million barrels daily deficit in global oil supply as the 2004 production was 80.26 million barrels per day. The global gas consumption, similarly, indicates a faster pace compared to the production pace. For example, in 2004 gas consumption was 3.3% higher than 2003, whereas the production just increased by 2.8%.
The United States, OECD, and Asia Pacific nations were accounted for the majority of share in hydrocarbon consumption. The demand in China and India is expected to grow given their fast growing economies. Accordingly, the global oil deficit will broaden and gas consumption is likely to follow. For example, most of the fast growing Asia Pacific economies experienced roughly two digits annual growth in oil consumption during 2004, with China accounted for nearly 16% (6.68 million barrels daily). Additionally, in Asia Pacific region, the gas demand in Singapore and Hong Kong experienced the most dramatic annual growth in 2004 (45.7% and 44.5% respectively).
Firm Structure, Strategy and Rivalry
The majority of the oil and gas companies operating in Indonesia are overseas affiliation. Their headquarters are mostly in the US, Europe, and several Asia Pacific companies such Petronas and Petrochina International. Despite the state-owned company, Pertamina, there have also been several Indonesian oil companies such as Medco and so on. Given the economies of scale, there has been limited number of companies entering the industry. This results in an oligopolistic environment dominated by companies like Chevron, Exxon Mobil, British Petroleum and Total. This structure, nevertheless, enables the companies to overcome the technology and knowledge capital constrains. For example, the oil and gas companies employ the cutting edge technology from their host countries, such Exxon-Mobil using 4-D seismic technology from the US.
The oil and gas companies, in general, operate their exploration and production fields under joint venture or contract schemes. These strategies help them to spread the risks and distribute the resources among the companies. The schemes also positively contribute to the local partners through the transfer of knowledge and technology. For example, Total Indonesie, one of the biggest gas producers, normally contracts out many of its exploration and maintenance works to local companies, hence local partners should fulfil the required standard. Meanwhile, Medco and Pertamina jointly operate the Tiaka oilfield in offshore Central Sulawesi.
Related and Supporting Industry
As mentioned previously, contractor and service industries play essential role in Indonesian oil and gas industry. Do these related industries deliver an international standard of services? There is large number of world class service industry operating in Indonesia. Particularly, many international financial institutions operate in the country, such like PricewaterhouseCoopers, Ernst and Young, Citibank, and many more. International oil and gas contractors and services are also available; Schlumberger, Geoprolog, and Paradigm just to name a few. Accordingly, there is no real problem regarding world class supporting industries. Nevertheless, investors are still facing the problems regarding research and development and reliable database regarding the industry. Several companies, like Miningindo, have started to provide such information. Yet, research and development still heavily relay on the oil and gas companies.
On the subject of downstream industry, Pertamina still possesses privilege to market the subsidized gasoline and diesel fuels domestically. However, under Government Regulation no. 36/2004, oil and gas operators are eligible to sale their own processed fuel, such as operating unsubsidized fuel stations (Luckey and Gupta, 2004). This new regulation allows oil and gas firms to establish their own processing, transportation, and trade facilities and networks. Furthermore, there have also been established downstream businesses supporting the oil and gas upstream like refineries, gas pipeline to Singapore, and transportation facilities. Frequent domestic fuel supply disruption becomes the main concern as the vast majority of downstream business is still operated by Pertamina plus poor physical infrastructures.
Government Policies and Practices
Government role is the next determinant for the energy businesses after the factor endowment. Tilton (2002) argues that government can boost the competitiveness by creating necessary conditions for innovation and technological improvement. This role materializes in the form of fiscal policies including taxes and royalties, and investment policies.
Governance and law uncertainty are the Indonesia’s main pitfalls (Basri, 2005). Lack of professionalism, unnecessary bureaucracy, and contradiction among regulations are a few that deteriorate Indonesia’s oil and gas investment. To illustrate, investors have experienced difficulties in dealing with conflict between local and central government regulations, and inexperience local government officials since the implementation of regional autonomy in 1998.
In terms of fiscal policy, the main concern is taxes and royalty system. Indonesia is the first country employs contract production sharing (KPS) between the field operator i.e. oil and gas company and the government. Current share ratios are 65:35 for oil and 60:40 for gas in favour to the government or roughly 5 to 14% revenue (Wells, 2006), yet it is subject to negotiation based on individual project (WEC, 2006). This scheme may create uncertainty for companies in calculating the taxes and royalty portions, yet it provides undisputable share between the parties. Hence, the scheme is now widely adopted by most of the Middle Eastern and Asian countries (Wells, 2006).
Chance
The oil and gas industry faces various external forces that can either positively or negatively impact the competitiveness. Firstly, Global oil shortage, fast growing economies such as China and India, political instability in the Middle East are the possible factors for increasing oil and gas prices. Higher oil prices stimulate the companies to increase their exploration budget. Middle Eastern unrests make Indonesia as an alternative choice for oil and gas investment. Meanwhile, under ceteris paribus condition, it will be cheaper for the South East Asian countries to import oil and gas from Indonesia, instead of the Middle East or Russia thanks to Indonesia’s strategic position.
The external factors that may hamper the Indonesian petroleum competitiveness are environmental issues, alternative energy, and pandemic diseases such avian flu and SARS. Uranium and coal are the main substitutes for oil and gas fuels. Furthermore, there has been strong demand for cleaner energy. In conjunction with increasing oil prices, the countries will seek alternatives energy sources like ethanol, wind, tide, and waterfalls. For instance, the trend of global oil and gas demand will change significantly by China’s plan to increase uranium-based power plants. Meanwhile, increasing campaign for utilizing ethanol fuel will decrease the demand for gasoline and diesel fuel. Other issues are regarding pandemic diseases such as avian flue and SARS. These pandemics were firstly encountered in East Asia; thus considerable number of Indonesians died from avian flu. This condition may affect the companies’ decisions to invest in Indonesia including oil and gas industry.
Conclusion
Indonesia’s oil and gas industry is still competitive in the global market, especially in Asia Pacific region, even though not as strong as pre-economic crisis. The macroeconomic indicators and investment climate sound encouraging. Meanwhile, the country has considerable oil and gas reserves, with a strong domestic and regional demand, in addition to its strategic geographical setting. Domestically, Indonesia is able to support the industry with large number of labour forces and adequate number of skilled workforce. There are also reliable supporting industries such as world class financial and technical services companies. Well established world class oil and gas operators and other operational strategies are significant properties to operate competitively. Furthermore, current regulatory reform and the improvement of investment incentive are believed to enhance the domestic investment in oil and gas industry. The competitiveness is also strengthened by increasing fuel prices, deepening global oil deficits, and political instability in hydrocarbon rich countries.
However, there are prices for regaining such competitiveness. The government needs to boost investment in exploration and provide incentive to optimize the existing wells in order to maintain a sustainable competitiveness. Accordingly, the government needs to address governance related issues including improving professionalism and the quality of the service. Resolving the contradiction among regulations, including those relates to the implementation of regional autonomy is a must. Upgrading communication infrastructure is of concern as well as transportation. Increasing the investors’ confidence by implementing strategic approaches in tackling the pandemics in the region is also required.
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How Much Will Rising Oil Prices Slow Asian Growth? 2005, Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. Retrieved: April 28, 2006, from http://www.asiapacificbusiness.ca/apbn/pdfs/bulletin222.pdf.
Luckey, L & Gupta, S 2004, 'Downstream Oil and Gas Business Activities: Summary and Issues', Connected Thinking: Energy Utilities and Mining Flash, pp. 6 - 10.
Miriawati, I 2004, Marginal Fields in Indonesia, BPMIGAS. Retrieved: May 06, 2006, from ttp://www.ccop.or.th/projects/PPM/Case_Study_Indonesia_files/3rd_Workshop/presentations/Doc03_marginalfieldsinIndonesia.pdf.
Porter, M 1990, 'Determinants of National Competitive Advantage', in The Competitive Advantage of Nations, Macmillan, London, pp. 69 - 130.
'PT Pertamina Proposal to Cepu Unacceptable' 2006, Rigzone News, February 21, 2006.
Susastro, H, The Economic Crisis in Indonesia: Lesson and Challenge for Sustainable Development. Retrieved: March 20, 2005, from http://www.pacific.net.id/pakar/hadisusastro/economic.html.
Temple, J 2001, Growing Into Trouble: Indonesia After 1966, Department of Economics, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
Tilton, JE 2002, Source of Wealth and Competitiveness in Mining, The Centro de Mineria of the Pontificia Universidad Catolica, Chile.
Tse, P-K 2001, 'The Mineral Industry of Indonesia', in US Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2001, pp. 12.1 - 12.10.
WEC 2005, The Benefits and Deficiencies of Energy Sector Liberalization Upstream Oil and Gas, World Energy Council. Retrieved: May 10th, 2006, from http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/current_cls/ClsGAS.asp#intro.
Wells, P 2006, Petroleum Contract and Related Issues, Baku. Retrieved: May 10th, 2006, from http://www.eiti-az.org/ts_gen/eng/eiti_news/intconference_PeterWells_presentation_e.pdf.
By Herman Seran
Introduction
As of May 2006, the spot price for crude oil in NYMEX has been around US$70 per barrel or almost twice of that in April 2003. This is a fortune for oil production countries. As an oil and gas producer, Indonesia may benefit from this windfall mirroring its experience before the Asian financial crisis. Prior to crisis, the country’s economic development was strongly supported oil and gas booming during 1970s to 1980s (Gylfason, 2001, Susastro, nd, Temple, 2001). Will Indonesia benefit from the current oil booming? This paper aims to address the question by considering the country’s competitive advantage in the industry employing Porter’s Diamond model.Exploring the Indonesian chance to benefit from this current energy booming implies consideration on the advantages of the country to compete in global energy market. The question is, therefore, what are the competitive advantages of Indonesian oil and gas industry to compete globally or at least play significant role in Asia Pacific oil and gas market. Accordingly, the paper approaches this issue by firstly, briefly discussing the Indonesian macroeconomic position with specific consideration on the role of the oil and gas industry. Secondly, the theory of international competitiveness is touched on briefly to contextualize the Porter’s Diamond model. Thirdly, the current condition of the Indonesian oil and gas industry is assessed employing the Porter’s national competitive advantage determinants.
Economic Indicators and the Role of Oil and Gas Industry
Economic Indicator
The Indonesian economy suffered the most from the 1998 financial crisis. The GDP sharply slumped reaching the lowest level since 1966 at nearly -15% (Temple, 2001). However, as well as political reform, the economic growth has steadily reached the pre-crisis level. Asian Development Bank reported that the GDP growth in 2005 was 5.6%, a significant increase from 3.8% in 2001 (ADB, 2006). Meanwhile, fiscal deficit has encouragingly declined below one percent. The outstanding problems are lowering inflation which experienced a bleak trend during the final quarter, boosting the export which has downed to 13% GDP (17% before crisis), and creating jobs for 2.5 million annual increasing labour forces.
The experts predict a slower economic growth in 2006, due to the current domestic situation, and global issues like spiking oil prices and increasing the US interest rate. Indonesian Central Bank predicts the GDP growth in 2006 will range from 5% to 5.7% (BI, 2006). Meanwhile, the Asian development Bank predicts GDP growth will likely be 5.4% (ADB, 2006).
Indonesian Oil and Gas Industry
Petroleum industry has contributed significantly to the Indonesian economy. As of 2004, the country’s oil and gas reserves were predicted to be 4.7 billion barrels and 2.56 trillion cubic-meters (BP, 2005). It has been argued that natural resource endowment underpinning the Indonesian high economic performance during 1966 to 1998 (Gylfason, 2001, Temple, 2001). Hayashi (2005) reveals that petroleum industry significantly shaped the GDP per capita during 1965 to 2000. For instance, World Energy Council predicts the industry represented 66% of total domestic earnings and 76% of export earnings in 1983 (WEC, 2005).
Nevertheless, soaring domestic demand and continuous decline in oil production since 1994 have made the country a net oil importer in 2004, for the first time ever. Yet, this decline was compensated relatively by growing export in natural gas.
There have been various explanations for the decline in production and increase in domestic consumption. Well exhaustion is the main reason for the down trend of the production (Tse, 2001). Meanwhile, lacking exploration and new discovery are the next contributors (ADB, 2006), in addition to socio-political reasons and OPEC’s strategy to boost oil prices. For example, Exxon-Mobil’s gas production in Aceh was disrupted due to the security problem, while old wells’ production in Cepu, Central Java, has significantly declined. When it comes to consumption, the increase in standard of living may be the explanation. Several analysts, including Asian Development Bank, believe that Indonesian long term oil subsidy was the main trigger for strong domestic consumption (ADB, 2006).
By no means to underestimate the exhaustive and cyclical nature of oil and gas, the country will continue to benefit from the industry, in terms of national export, the source of FDI, and economic multiple effect. Decision to remove most of the oil subsidy is believed to lower the domestic consumption. Thus, the trend of investment in the oil and gas sector indicates an encouraging sign, though the conducive investment condition is still of concern. For example, the recent agreement between the Exxon-Mobil and Pertamina regarding Cepu oil field is a positive precedent to the future investment in the industry (ADB, 2006). This field will contribute approximately 20% of the current daily production (Rigzone News, 2006). Nonetheless, in the next decade the capacity of production is believed to be lower compared to 1999 level (Miriawati, 2004).
International Competitiveness and Porter’s Diamond Model
A country is internationally competitive in a certain industry if it has “the ability to provide internationally a quality product, promptly at a reasonable price” (Gapinski, 2001. p37). To compete in such global environment, a country requires certain advantage over the others which has to be maintained continuously. The term ‘advantage’ is proposed by Adam Smith in 1776 in his book The Wealth of Nations. Smith suggests ‘absolute advantage’ as the explanation for international trade as opposed to mercantilism principle ‘zero sum game’, which has been previously criticized by Hume in 1752 (Gionea, 2004).
The absolute advantage theory is then enhanced by David Ricardo in 1817, by introducing ‘comparative advantage’. Ricardo encourages countries to trade among each other by dedicating their factors of production to the most efficient sectors and obtaining the rest through international trade. Meanwhile, the Hecksher – Ohlin (factor endowment) theory aims to explain the pattern of international trade by revealing that countries are likely to export goods they produce with their abundance factors of production and import what is produced with the factors they scarcely have (Gionea, 2004).
The Porter’s diamond model aims to integrate the previous international trade theories. The model is based on the principle of competition among the nations, by exploiting their competitive advantages and continuously improving them through innovation and technological improvement (Porter, 1990). Porter argues that there are six determinants explaining competitiveness of a country. The determinants form a mutually reinforcing ‘diamond’ system. They are factor endowment, demand condition, related and supporting industries, firm strategy, structure and rivalry, the role of government and chance.
Summarizing his points, factor endowment is divided into basic factors including natural resources, climate, location semiskilled labour, debt capital; and advance factor involving modern infrastructure and skilled human resources and modern technology. These factors are only competitive if they are effectively utilized. Porter stresses the domestic demand as the primary driver for competitiveness. Nevertheless, international demand is likely to the main interest in natural resources sector. Related and supporting industries are very important in helping a firm compete internationally such as suppliers and services industries. Internal condition such as firm structure and strategy in competing domestic rivals is also one of the determinants. Porter believes in the role of the governments is providing supportive environment or the other way around. Finally, chance is factors beyond the control of the industry or government such as economic cycle, war and alike that may influence the competitiveness.
Indonesian Oil and Gas Industry Competitiveness
Factor Endowment
Indonesia has been recognized as one of the oil and gas rich country. Its membership in the OPEC is in support of this argument. In terms of basic factor endowment, the country has significant oil and gas reserves that can compete globally, especially in Asia Pacific region. BP (2005), for example, predicts that Indonesia is one of the largest oil and gas reserves in Asia Pacific as revealed in table 2. Its strategic location near the fast growing economies such as China and Singapore is another advantage. Furthermore, the 240-million population indicates a massive number of potential workforces.
Indonesia is relatively competitive in terms of advance factors. The country is now able to provide skilled workforce to the oil and gas industry. Most of the oil and gas companies employ domestic geologists and engineers. There are hundreds annual graduates from oil and gas related programs from Indonesian universities, though yet to be internationally recognized. There is also large number of operators that have acquired recognizable experiences. These achievements can be seen from increasing number of Indonesian skilled workers employed overseas in natural resources sector, such as Qatar, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam and Australia. A problem regarding advance factors is high cost communication technology, yet limited coverage. Nevertheless, natural resources companies overcome it by using satellite communication.
Demand condition
Even though strong domestic demand is not the primary concern, nonetheless, it may significantly shape the pattern of the trade. The domestic oil demand is currently getting stronger; gas demand is likewise though in a slower rate. By 2004, the oil consumption has exceeded the production reaching 1.15 million barrels per day, forcing the country to import crude oil. Nevertheless, gas export continues to grow thanks to low domestic demand.
The international consumption has outpaced the global production. The global oil demand has increased reaching 80.76 million barrels per day or nearly 3.4% increase from 2003 consumption level. This number reveals nearly 0.5 million barrels daily deficit in global oil supply as the 2004 production was 80.26 million barrels per day. The global gas consumption, similarly, indicates a faster pace compared to the production pace. For example, in 2004 gas consumption was 3.3% higher than 2003, whereas the production just increased by 2.8%.
The United States, OECD, and Asia Pacific nations were accounted for the majority of share in hydrocarbon consumption. The demand in China and India is expected to grow given their fast growing economies. Accordingly, the global oil deficit will broaden and gas consumption is likely to follow. For example, most of the fast growing Asia Pacific economies experienced roughly two digits annual growth in oil consumption during 2004, with China accounted for nearly 16% (6.68 million barrels daily). Additionally, in Asia Pacific region, the gas demand in Singapore and Hong Kong experienced the most dramatic annual growth in 2004 (45.7% and 44.5% respectively).
Firm Structure, Strategy and Rivalry
The majority of the oil and gas companies operating in Indonesia are overseas affiliation. Their headquarters are mostly in the US, Europe, and several Asia Pacific companies such Petronas and Petrochina International. Despite the state-owned company, Pertamina, there have also been several Indonesian oil companies such as Medco and so on. Given the economies of scale, there has been limited number of companies entering the industry. This results in an oligopolistic environment dominated by companies like Chevron, Exxon Mobil, British Petroleum and Total. This structure, nevertheless, enables the companies to overcome the technology and knowledge capital constrains. For example, the oil and gas companies employ the cutting edge technology from their host countries, such Exxon-Mobil using 4-D seismic technology from the US.
The oil and gas companies, in general, operate their exploration and production fields under joint venture or contract schemes. These strategies help them to spread the risks and distribute the resources among the companies. The schemes also positively contribute to the local partners through the transfer of knowledge and technology. For example, Total Indonesie, one of the biggest gas producers, normally contracts out many of its exploration and maintenance works to local companies, hence local partners should fulfil the required standard. Meanwhile, Medco and Pertamina jointly operate the Tiaka oilfield in offshore Central Sulawesi.
Related and Supporting Industry
As mentioned previously, contractor and service industries play essential role in Indonesian oil and gas industry. Do these related industries deliver an international standard of services? There is large number of world class service industry operating in Indonesia. Particularly, many international financial institutions operate in the country, such like PricewaterhouseCoopers, Ernst and Young, Citibank, and many more. International oil and gas contractors and services are also available; Schlumberger, Geoprolog, and Paradigm just to name a few. Accordingly, there is no real problem regarding world class supporting industries. Nevertheless, investors are still facing the problems regarding research and development and reliable database regarding the industry. Several companies, like Miningindo, have started to provide such information. Yet, research and development still heavily relay on the oil and gas companies.
On the subject of downstream industry, Pertamina still possesses privilege to market the subsidized gasoline and diesel fuels domestically. However, under Government Regulation no. 36/2004, oil and gas operators are eligible to sale their own processed fuel, such as operating unsubsidized fuel stations (Luckey and Gupta, 2004). This new regulation allows oil and gas firms to establish their own processing, transportation, and trade facilities and networks. Furthermore, there have also been established downstream businesses supporting the oil and gas upstream like refineries, gas pipeline to Singapore, and transportation facilities. Frequent domestic fuel supply disruption becomes the main concern as the vast majority of downstream business is still operated by Pertamina plus poor physical infrastructures.
Government Policies and Practices
Government role is the next determinant for the energy businesses after the factor endowment. Tilton (2002) argues that government can boost the competitiveness by creating necessary conditions for innovation and technological improvement. This role materializes in the form of fiscal policies including taxes and royalties, and investment policies.
Governance and law uncertainty are the Indonesia’s main pitfalls (Basri, 2005). Lack of professionalism, unnecessary bureaucracy, and contradiction among regulations are a few that deteriorate Indonesia’s oil and gas investment. To illustrate, investors have experienced difficulties in dealing with conflict between local and central government regulations, and inexperience local government officials since the implementation of regional autonomy in 1998.
In terms of fiscal policy, the main concern is taxes and royalty system. Indonesia is the first country employs contract production sharing (KPS) between the field operator i.e. oil and gas company and the government. Current share ratios are 65:35 for oil and 60:40 for gas in favour to the government or roughly 5 to 14% revenue (Wells, 2006), yet it is subject to negotiation based on individual project (WEC, 2006). This scheme may create uncertainty for companies in calculating the taxes and royalty portions, yet it provides undisputable share between the parties. Hence, the scheme is now widely adopted by most of the Middle Eastern and Asian countries (Wells, 2006).
Chance
The oil and gas industry faces various external forces that can either positively or negatively impact the competitiveness. Firstly, Global oil shortage, fast growing economies such as China and India, political instability in the Middle East are the possible factors for increasing oil and gas prices. Higher oil prices stimulate the companies to increase their exploration budget. Middle Eastern unrests make Indonesia as an alternative choice for oil and gas investment. Meanwhile, under ceteris paribus condition, it will be cheaper for the South East Asian countries to import oil and gas from Indonesia, instead of the Middle East or Russia thanks to Indonesia’s strategic position.
The external factors that may hamper the Indonesian petroleum competitiveness are environmental issues, alternative energy, and pandemic diseases such avian flu and SARS. Uranium and coal are the main substitutes for oil and gas fuels. Furthermore, there has been strong demand for cleaner energy. In conjunction with increasing oil prices, the countries will seek alternatives energy sources like ethanol, wind, tide, and waterfalls. For instance, the trend of global oil and gas demand will change significantly by China’s plan to increase uranium-based power plants. Meanwhile, increasing campaign for utilizing ethanol fuel will decrease the demand for gasoline and diesel fuel. Other issues are regarding pandemic diseases such as avian flue and SARS. These pandemics were firstly encountered in East Asia; thus considerable number of Indonesians died from avian flu. This condition may affect the companies’ decisions to invest in Indonesia including oil and gas industry.
Conclusion
Indonesia’s oil and gas industry is still competitive in the global market, especially in Asia Pacific region, even though not as strong as pre-economic crisis. The macroeconomic indicators and investment climate sound encouraging. Meanwhile, the country has considerable oil and gas reserves, with a strong domestic and regional demand, in addition to its strategic geographical setting. Domestically, Indonesia is able to support the industry with large number of labour forces and adequate number of skilled workforce. There are also reliable supporting industries such as world class financial and technical services companies. Well established world class oil and gas operators and other operational strategies are significant properties to operate competitively. Furthermore, current regulatory reform and the improvement of investment incentive are believed to enhance the domestic investment in oil and gas industry. The competitiveness is also strengthened by increasing fuel prices, deepening global oil deficits, and political instability in hydrocarbon rich countries.
However, there are prices for regaining such competitiveness. The government needs to boost investment in exploration and provide incentive to optimize the existing wells in order to maintain a sustainable competitiveness. Accordingly, the government needs to address governance related issues including improving professionalism and the quality of the service. Resolving the contradiction among regulations, including those relates to the implementation of regional autonomy is a must. Upgrading communication infrastructure is of concern as well as transportation. Increasing the investors’ confidence by implementing strategic approaches in tackling the pandemics in the region is also required.
References
ADB 2006, 'Indonesia', in Asian Development Outlook 2006, Asian Development Bank, pp. 199 - 203. from http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/ADO/2006/documents/ino.pdf
Basri, CM 2005, 'Indonesia', in R Richardson (ed.), Pacific Economic Outlook 2005 - 2006, Pacific Economic Cooperation Council, Singapore, pp. 26 - 31. from http://www.asiapacificbusiness.ca/peo/index.cfm
BI 2005, 'Outlook for the Indonesian Economy, 2006', in Prospek Perekonomian Indonesia Tahun 2006, Central Bank of Indonesia, Jakarta, from http://www.bi.go.id/NR/rdonlyres/A1C39CA4-3031-4CCA-8560-910DD285D685/3270/ProspekperekonomianIndonesiatahun2006_Engl.pdf
BP 2005, Putting Energy in the Spotlight: The BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2005, British Petroleum. Retrieved: May 1st, 2006, from www.bp.com/statisticalreview
Gapinski, J 2001, 'Developing ICOM: An Index for International Competitiveness', in H Bloch & P Kenyon (eds.), Creating an Internationally Competitive Economy, Palgrave, Basingstoke, pp. 36 - 50.
Gionea, J 2005, 'International Trade Theory', in International Trade and Investment: An Asia-Pacific Perspective, 2nd edn, Mc-Graw Hill Irwin, Sydney, pp. 51 - 70.
Gylfason, T 2001, 'Natural Resources, Education and Economic Development', European Economic Review, vol. 45, no. 2001, pp. 847 - 859.
Hayashi, M 2005, 'Structural Change in Indonesian Industry and Trade: An Input - Output Analysis', The Developing Economies, vol. XLIII-1, no. March 2005, pp. 39 - 71.
How Much Will Rising Oil Prices Slow Asian Growth? 2005, Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. Retrieved: April 28, 2006, from http://www.asiapacificbusiness.ca/apbn/pdfs/bulletin222.pdf.
Luckey, L & Gupta, S 2004, 'Downstream Oil and Gas Business Activities: Summary and Issues', Connected Thinking: Energy Utilities and Mining Flash, pp. 6 - 10.
Miriawati, I 2004, Marginal Fields in Indonesia, BPMIGAS. Retrieved: May 06, 2006, from ttp://www.ccop.or.th/projects/PPM/Case_Study_Indonesia_files/3rd_Workshop/presentations/Doc03_marginalfieldsinIndonesia.pdf.
Porter, M 1990, 'Determinants of National Competitive Advantage', in The Competitive Advantage of Nations, Macmillan, London, pp. 69 - 130.
'PT Pertamina Proposal to Cepu Unacceptable' 2006, Rigzone News, February 21, 2006.
Susastro, H, The Economic Crisis in Indonesia: Lesson and Challenge for Sustainable Development. Retrieved: March 20, 2005, from http://www.pacific.net.id/pakar/hadisusastro/economic.html.
Temple, J 2001, Growing Into Trouble: Indonesia After 1966, Department of Economics, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
Tilton, JE 2002, Source of Wealth and Competitiveness in Mining, The Centro de Mineria of the Pontificia Universidad Catolica, Chile.
Tse, P-K 2001, 'The Mineral Industry of Indonesia', in US Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2001, pp. 12.1 - 12.10.
WEC 2005, The Benefits and Deficiencies of Energy Sector Liberalization Upstream Oil and Gas, World Energy Council. Retrieved: May 10th, 2006, from http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/current_cls/ClsGAS.asp#intro.
Wells, P 2006, Petroleum Contract and Related Issues, Baku. Retrieved: May 10th, 2006, from http://www.eiti-az.org/ts_gen/eng/eiti_news/intconference_PeterWells_presentation_e.pdf.
Saturday, 22 November 2008
INDONESIA DI MATA SEORANG MINORITAS
Makalah Diskusi menyambut 17 Agustus 2006 di Perth
Herman Seran
Introduksi
Ketika panitia seminar menggategorikan NTT sebagai wilayah yang terpinggirkan secara identitas, dan saya diminta bersaksi tentang bentuk marginalisasi tersebut saya sempat bingung: bagaimana pendapat saya. Karena menurut pengamatan orang Indonesia yang lain, orang NTT telah tergeser ke tepian kehidupan bernegara Indonesia, setelah 61 tahun bersama mengikrarkan satu kebersamaan dalam payung negara kesatuan Republik Indonesia.
Apa benar bahwa orang dan wilayah NTT terpinggirkan secara identitas? Apa alasan untuk mengklaim bahwa NTT sungguh terpinggirkan akibat dinamika sosial, ekonomi dan politik negara yang mengakui hakekatnya untuk melindungi segenap bangsa Indonesia tanpa berbagai embel – embel sejenis minoritas atau mayoritas? Secara umum saya akui bahwa pernyataan tersebut ada benarnya. Tapi jangan – jangan ini cuman perasaan saya saja? Karena nyatanya, hari ini AIPPSA masih memberikan kesempatan kepada kelompok yang terpinggirkan itu untuk bicara. Atau, di tingkat nasional, hasil muktamar NU yang baru lalu membuktikan bahwa pluralitas dan kebhinekaan Indonesia masih disadari oleh organisasi muslim terbesar di Indonesia itu.
Untuk pembahasan isu peminggiran identitas tersebut, saya akan mengkalibrasi opini saya dengan pernyataan beberapa teman yang berasal dari NTT maupun yang lama tinggal di NTT. Kemudian kita melihat bukti – bukti yang mendukung dalam konteks pengalaman saya sebagai orang NTT. Selanjutnya saya mendiskusikan akibat marginalisasi tersebut bagi kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara Indonesia. Berdasarkan pemaparan di atas, saya akan susulkan dengan apa ide saya untuk menjaga persatuan dan kesatuan Indonesia di masa depan.
Kalibrasi Opini
Saya coba bertanya kepada beberapa teman saya lewat email untuk menyelaraskan opini saya yang sering kali ekstrem. Katakanlah pooling opini cendikiawan muda yang berasal dari dan atau bekerja di NTT. Sebagian besar mereka mengakui bahwa pendapat saya tidak terlalu menyimpang dari apa yang mereka pikirkan. Berikut petikan dari beberapa pernyataan mereka:
“...satu hal yang saya sesali adalah betapa piciknya anak-anak bangsa sekarang yang menggunakan dan memanfaatkan perbedaan yang ada sebagai alat untuk memaksakan kepentingan sebagian golongan. disini anak-anak bangsa non jawa menjadi kelompok minoritas dan terpinggir karena dianggap tidak penting, tidak berbudaya, tidak pintar dan kurang berpendidikan. kira-kira segini aja komentar saya soalnya sakit hati kalau diterusin...” (AL)
“…pendapatan per kapita penduduk NTT ternyata kedua paling kecil: Rp3.113.300,00, sangat kecil dibanding pendapatan per kapita nasional Rp10.461.700,00. Ini hanya sedikit lebih tinggi dari Maluku Utara, Rp2.713.700,00. Padahal ketong tahu mereka baru saja lepas dari konflik panjang!...” (PP)
“…Gambaran situasi pendidikan di Desa Oeniko, Kabupaten Kupang (kurang lebih 55 km dari Kupang): Angka buta huruf di desa ini mencapai 95%. Satu-satunya sekolah yang ada adalah SD darurat yang hanya memiliki 3 kelas yang dibangun dengan swadaya masyarakat (!) dengan bahan seadanya: berdinding bebak gewang dan bambu, dan beratap daun alang-alang. Jumlah guru hanya 2 orang sehingga ada 2 kelas yang hanya diasuh oleh satu tenaga pengajar. Status dari 2 guru tersebut yaitu 1 guru kontrak dan 1 guru bantu, yang gajinya dibayar oleh swadaya masyarakat juga (Rp 450.000/bulan), dan melalui pungutan komite sekolah (Rp 150.000/bulan) (total Rp 600.000/bulan, yang berarti gaji guru Rp 300.000/guru/bulan) .
…. Untuk melanjutkan ke SMP atau SMA, orang harus ke ibukota Kecamatan, yaitu Oesao, yang berjarak 20 km dari desa, dengan jalan yang hanya berupa pengerasan. Sebagai tambahan, selama terbentuknya desa Oeniko, pembangunan sarana dan pra sarana hanya pengkerasan jalan desa sepanjang 1 kilometer sedangkan kantor desa dibangun secara swadaya masyarakat dengan gotong royong....” (RF)
“… saya merasa NTT belum merdeka.Teman-teman bahkan menambahkan, kalau tdk ada konflikTimtim, Kupang-Atambua tdk mungkin ditempuh dalam kurang dr 12 jam alias jalan dan jembatan tdk dibangun...” (DH).
Pengalaman dan observasi pribadi:
Bukti Marginalisasi
NTT memang terpinggirkan secara identitas dalam beberapa aspek:
Aspek geografis: banyak orang Indonesia terlebih yang di Jawa tidak tahu dimana NTT itu berada. Ketika pertama kali saya sekolah di Yogyakarta, saat berkenalan dengan beberapa teman dari jawa. Saya katakan bahwa saya dari NTT. Teman itu menjawab... “Oh Lombok?” “Bukan! Timor!” “Oh Timor Timur?” “Bukan! Timor Barat!” “Dimana Timor Barat?” Pengalaman seperti ini terjadi acap kali terhadap saya selama saya tinggal dan hidup di Yogya dari 1992 hingga 2002.
Aspek Politik dan Pemerintahan: pemerintah Republik Indonesia tidak sadar bahwa NTT itu adalah propinsi kepulauan. Buktinya, sampai hari ini Pemprov NTT masih memperjuangkan status NTT sebagai provinsi kepulauan. Adalah ironis bahwa gelar “Nusa” tidak serta merta berarti kepulauan bagi provinsi yang mempunyai lebih dari 550 pulau tersebut. Karena saking banyaknya pulau, Pulau Pasir (Ashmore Reef) yang secara anthropologis milik orang NTT tidak tergambar dalam peta Belanda tapi muncul di peta Inggris (pers com with Aloysius Maja), sehingga menjadi milik Australia walaupun orang NTT masih berjuang sampai sekarang untuk mengklaim fakta antropologis tersebut.
Aspek Sosial: 91% penduduk NTT adalah Kristen, sehingga pemberlakuan peraturan yang menyiratkan diskriminasi bagi orang non-muslim adalah bentuk marginalisasi bagi orang NTT. Bukti yang paling jelas adalah ancaman dari sekelompok orang NTT untuk keluar dari Indonesia jika RUU APP disahkan menjadi UU. Selain itu vonis hukuman mati bagi Tibo Cs terkait kasus Poso, bagi orang NTT adalah bentuk pengkhianatan yang paling menyakitkan. Mengapa? Di samping karena tiga orang tersebut adalah transmigran asal NTT, bagi orang NTT, vonis itu tidak lebih daripada bentuk penumbalan orang kecil dan ketidakadilan bagi orang kristiani.
Aspek Pendidikan dan Pengembangan SDM: Standar pendidikan Indonesia bagian timur dan barat sangat jauh berbeda. Semua universitas besar ada di Jawa dan Sumatera sementara yang di timur hampir tidak kedengaran. Paling yang kedengaran UNHAS dan UNSRAT, selebihnya tidak ada yang tahu. Ilustrasi tentang universitas di atas menggambarkan kualitas pendidikan secara umum di Indonesia bagian timur yang berada di bawah standar nasional. Sebagai contoh, seorang teman saya dari Flores yang kuliah di AKABRI Magelang tahun 1990-an bercerita kepada saya, bahwa sebelum mengikuti kuliah normal dia ikut kelas matrikulasi. Jika lampu kelas matrikulasi dipadamkan, maka tidak ada yang terlihat kecuali kalau tertawa, karena semuanya berasal dari NTT, Maluku dan Papua. Tapi pada semester pertama kuliah dia menduduki ranking tiga. Pengalaman yang sama terjadi bagi banyak orang NTT yang kuliah di Jawa.
Aspek Pendidikan Sejarah: Pendidikan sejarah Indonesia terlalu menitik beratkan kepada sejarah perjuangan tokoh – tokoh Indonesia bagian barat. Hal demikian menyebabkan pelajaran sejara tidak membangkitkan rasa patriotisme saya sebagai warga negara, justru membuat saya merasa didoktrin dan terpinggirkan. Mengapa? Karena pengajaran demikian tidak membangkitkan sense fo belonging saya terhadap negara RI. Pelajaran sejarah demikian menciptakan kesan alienasi dan tidak menumbuhkan solidaritas kebangsaan. Kenyataannya, tempat lain termasuk NTT pun mempunyai para pejuang yang seharusnya perlu diangkat untuk menunjukkan bahwa Republik ini adalah hasil perjuangan kita semua. Tapi karena tidak diajarkan di sekolah, apa yang diceritakan nenek saya tentang keperwiraan pahlawan lokal daerah saya itu terasa seperti cerita legenda nenek moyang yang menciptakan image kejayaan masa lalu.
Aspek Praktek Kehidupan Harian: Seorang teman saya dari Ende pernah mengatakan bahwa Indonesia itu batasnya sampai di Bali. Kenapa? Karena para pejabat dari pusat kalo ke timur sampai di Bali balik. Dan para pejabat dari timur sering ke Bali untuk melapor. Bukti yang paling nyata adalah ketika ada lowongan kerja dari BUMN atau instansi vertical negara maka tempat testnya untuk NTT maksimum sampai di Bali. Contohnya adalah pengumuman tempat test penerimaan karyawan BI beberapa waktu lalu wilayah Nusa Tenggara dipusatkan di Bali. Dengan sendirinya sebagian besar kandidat NTT sudah tersisih karena keterbatasan akses baik dari segi jarak maupun dana.
Akibat Marginalisasi
Proses panjang marginalisasi tersebut mengkristal dalam bentuk competitive disadvantage yang membuat orang NTT, dan Indonesia bagian timur pada umumnya, berbenturan dengan ‘high barrier to participate’ dalam kehidupan bernegara dan berbangsa. Pada gilirannya, NTT semakin terpinggirkan dan bisa mengarah kepada eskalasi problem – problem sosial politik yang tidak kondusif. Orang hanya tersentak kalo ternyata di Sikka ada bencana kelaparan, sehingga DepSos harus turunkan timnya ke sana. Sayangnya mereka hanya dari atas mobil dan melihat anak – anak melambaikan tangan. Dan mereka simpulkan tidak ada kelaparan, karena anak – anak itu masih bisa bermain dan melambaikan tangan dengan ceriah. Satu pernyataan yang tidak ada bedanya dengan statemen Menko Kesra melihat babi di Yakuhimo gemuk – gemuk, dan menyatakan bahwa tidak ada kelaparan di sana, walaupun terbukti ada yang mati kelaparan.
Seperti apakah barrier to entry yang dimaksud?
Identitas agama dan suku. Ketika saya di SMA guru saya pernah mengatakan kepada kami bahwa paling tidak ada dua syarat untuk menjadi calon presiden Indonesia. Dua kriteria utama tersebut adalah muslim dan Jawa. Sejauh mana pernyataan itu benar? Saya sebagai orang NTT harus realistik bahwa memang Indonesia itu penduduknya mayoritas muslim dan Jawa, jadi probabilitas orang yang tidak memenuhi criteria di atas pasti kecil kemungkinan untuk terpilih. Artinya secara identitas, orang NTT punya hambatan untuk bersaing secara seimbang. Contoh yang lebih membumi: saya pernah ditest untuk menjadi asisten laboratorium sewaktu kuliah. Secara kualitas saya tidak meragukan kemampuan saya, karena di samping IPK saya, hampir setiap tahun dipercayakan jurusan untuk menjadi pembimbing pengenalan lapangan geologi untuk mahasiswa baru, dan beberapa asisten senior sudah mendekati saya. Ketika memasuki tahapan test terakhir dosen penguji bertanya: “Apa Agamamu?” Saya jawab “Katholik.” Ternyata dia tidak bertanya tentang ilmu saya tapi agama saya. Hasilnya, saya tidak lulus test asisten lab. Syukurnya, Freeport mengetes saya dan dinyatakan sebagai satu dari 4 mahasiswa geologi Indonesia yang berkesempatan ikut program ‘link and match’ yang diterapkan mentri P & K Wardiman.
Kualitas SDM. Seperti dijelaskan di atas, kualitas pendidikan orang NTT pada umumnya berada di bawah level nasional. Hal ini bukan dikarenakan potensi yang rendah, tetapi lebih dikarenakan standar mutu pendidikan yang relatif rendah dibandingkan mereka yang di Indonesia bagian barat. Untuk yang satu ini, saya merupakan pendukung JK dalam hal perlunya ujian nasional bagi mereka dari Indonesia Timur, hanya harus disertai dengan pembenahan sistem dan fasilitas pendidikan Indonesia timur. Pernyataan yang dikutip dari kesaksian teman saya tentang sekolah di pinggiran Kupang di atas, menggambarkan wajah pendidikan NTT. Tapi harus diakui bahwa banyak orang NTT yang mampu melompati barrier tersebut dan berkiprah di tingkat nasional. Misalnya rektor pertama Gadja Mada adalah orang NTT dan Konsul RI di Perth adalah juga orang NTT. Atau, tahun ini ada seorang anak SD dari Flores yang menjadi juara olimpiade matematika di Singapura.
Infrastruktur dan fasilitas. Sarana prasarana NTT yang minim membuat sebagian besar orang NTT kalah dalam bersaing di tingkat nasional. Akibatnya adalah mereka lebih menjadi beban bagi negara Indonesia karena tidak produktif. Persoalan sejenis terjadi pada pengembangan potensi alam lokal seperti pertanian dan peternakan. Misalnya, di Timor pernah dikembangkan budidaya apel tropis yang kualitasnya menurut beberapa pakar lebih bagus dari apel Malang. Tapi karena akses pasar yang buntu, apel membusuk, dan petani harus menkonversi lahannya menjadi lahan jagung daripada makan apel sebagai makanan pokok.
Kemampuan ekonomi. Kemampuan perekonomian yang relative sangat rendah dibandingkan dengan daerah lain membuat NTT semakin tersinggirkan karena partisipasi dan aktualisasi diri perlu modal. Bagaimana mungkin mengharapkan orang NTT untuk test di Bali sementara untuk makan saja sulit? Contoh untuk ini adalah seorang teman saya dari Flores. Dia batal untuk menerima beasiswa ADS (targeted) karena tidak punya uang untuk berangkat test ke Jakarta. Tanpa mempertimbangkan usaha dia untuk mencari dana, kenyataan ini menggambarkan betapa sulitnya mobilitas kalau miskin. Apa lagi hanya untuk test masuk BI di Bali yang belum tentu lulus.
Konsekuensi Lanjutan dari Marginalisasi:
Jangka pendek:
- NTT tetap akan menjadi beban bagi kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara secara khusus aspek perekonomian. Teori ekonomi mengataka bahwa salah satu elemen pertumbuhan ekonomi adalah produktifitas. Marginalisasi berakibat pada tidak optimalnya eksploitasi factor – factor produksi. Sementara itu, pemerintah pusat terus menerus mengucurkan dana bantuan. Akibatnya, adalah semakin lebarnya jurang kesenjangan antara timur dan barat.
- Penyelenggaraan kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara yang tidak efektif akibat pemahaman yang tidak utuh tentang NTT. Nusa Tenggara Timur adalah propinsi kepulau dengan ratusan pulau dan puluhan suku bangsa. Adalah tidak efektif jika menerapkan strategi yang digunakan di propinsi lain yang lebih homogen dan relatif berada pada satu daratan. Strategy yang tepat bisa diadopsi hanya jika ada kesadaran dan pengakuan akan pluralisme negara kita.
- Eskalasi sentimen SARA. Ketika orang merasa tidak diakui identitasnya, mereka akan berusaha menunjukkan eksistensi mereka (pers com with Mas Gaffar and Bang Mangadar). Dengan demikian marginalisasi akan mempertajam konflik SARA. Sebagai contoh, sampai hari ini hampir setiap hari ada demonstrasi di NTT menentang hukuman mati Tibo Cs akibat bentuk peradilan yang tidak adil dan sarat kepentingan. Jika hal demikian terus menerus terjadi akibatnya adalah akumulasi frustrasi dan dendam yang mengarah kepada eskalasi anarki. Bahkan dalam hubungan dengan kasus Tibo Cs, Kabupaten Sikka telah ditingkatkan level keamanannya ke Siaga I.
Jangka Panjang: Desintegrasi Bangsa. Jika pemerintah tidak tulus mengatasi persoalan – persoalan marginalisasi hakekat kebhinekaan bangsa, maka akibat jangka panjangnya adalah pecahnya Republik Indonesia menjadi negara – negara kecil. Rasa pesimistik ini juga dirasakan salah seorang warga NTT yang menulis di Pos Kupang (17/8/2006). Dia mengibaratkan Indonesia sebagai orang tua umur 61 tahun yang sudah pikun, tidak tegas dan tegar, dan impoten (Charles Beraf, 2006). Menurut Beraf, Indonesia pikun karena begitu muda melupakan hal – hal besar yang menyangkut integritas bangsa. Misalnya, Indonesia lupa bahwa republik ini terbentuk atas dasar pluralisme, dimana frase ‘dengan kewajiban menjalankan syariat Islam bagi pemeluknya’ dihapus dari Pancasila sebagai akomodasi suara tokoh – tokoh Indonesia bagian timur oleh tokoh – tokoh Islam nasionalis. Bangsa ini juga tidak tegas menyelesaikan persoalan – persoalan di republik ini, sehingga republik ini lebih banyak dikendalikan oleh kepentingan – kepentingan kelompok tertentu. Dan bangsa ini juga sudah impoten karena tidak mampu memproduksi pemimpin – pemimpin besar yang mampu mengayomi segenap bangsa Indonesia tapi membiarkan bangsa ini dibawa kepada desintegrasi.
Mempertahankan Integrasi Bangsa
Bagaimana mempertahankan Integrasi Republik Indonesia? Saya mengawali pembahasan saya dengan mengutip pernyataan seorang dosen Universitas Katholik Widya Mandira Kupang di Pos Kupang (18/8/2006) tentang pengalaman ke-Indonesia-annya:
“…Rakyat kecil itu tidak sedang berperkara dengan Indonesia. Tapi sesungguhnya mereka sedang berperkara dengan ketidakadilan atas nama Indonesia. Dengan keterbelakangan atas nama negara. Dengan ketertindasan atas nama Tanah Air. Dengan berbagai penderitaan yang dilakukan atas nama Republik Indonesia. Mereka berada di Indonesia, tetapi terisih dan kalah di negerinya sendiri yang bernama Indonesia. Mereka selalu menjadi korban dari kebijakan-kebijakan atas nama Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia. Di situlah rakyat sering diperangkap oleh keindonesiaan yang semu dan penuh siasat bulus. Keindonesiaan yang membuat rakyat susah dan sering menjadi korban, sementara para elite ongkang-ongkang dalam kesenangan. Jika belakangan ini muncul wacana krisis nasionalisme, jangan-jangan esensi dan muaranya ialah krisis perilaku elite yang sering mengatasnamakan Indonesia...” (Emiliana Martuti Lawalu, 2006).
Jadi mempertahankan Indonesia lebih pada penghentian penyalahgunaan Indonesia untuk kepentingan pribadi dan kelompok. Mari kita menyadari bahwa integritas bangsa sedang kita pertaruhkan demi kepentingan sempit. Dalam hal ini strong political will pemerintah untuk kembali ke misi utama negara: menghantarkan segenap bangsa Indonesia menuju pintu gerbang kemerdekaan yang sesungguhnya. Gerbang yang di dalamnya setiap orang merasa sungguh Indonesia karena mempunyai tempat yang sejajar dan berkeadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia.
Secara praktis saya menganjurkan:
- Pemerintah harus benar – benar menerapkan strategi pembangunan yang mengakomodasi potensi dan karakter lokal setiap daerah. Hal demikian hanya bisa terjadi jika negara sungguh mengenal dan mengakui eksistensi daerah dan masyarakatnya di seluruh nusantara. Pemerintah harus secara sengaja menerapkan program yang revolusioner untuk mempercepat ketertinggalan Indonesia bagian timur. Misalnya, Kalimantan dan Irian sebagai daerah yang kaya tambang dan hasil hutan harus didukung dengan sistem pengembangan sumber daya manusia yang menjawabi tantangan tersebut. Sementara Kepulauan Maluku dan Nusa Tenggara yang merupakan daerah kepulauan harus disokong dengan sistem transportasi laut dan infrastruktur yang memadai. Sehubungan dengan itu, saya setuju dengan negara federal sebagai bentuk pemerintahan yang lebih tepat untuk indonesia mengingat kebhinekaan dan pluralitas Republik Indonesia.
- Berikan perhatian khusus kepada pengembangan sumber daya manusia di Indonesia bagian timur. Untuk berkompetisi secara adil dibutuhkan starting point yang sama. Selama kualitas SDM barat dan timur tidak seimbang maka perasaan bahwa Indonesia bagian barat atau jawa menjajah luar jawa tetap akan menjadi isu yang mengancam desintegrasi bangsa. Karena itu langkah utama pemerintah adalah program – program strategis berkaitan langsung dengan peningkat kualitas institusi pendidikan. Untuk itu pemerintah dianjurkan menyokong dan mensubsidi institusi – institusi pendidikan yang berkualitas di daerah – daerah tersebut sehingga makin banyak anak didik yang tertampung di sana. Sebagai contoh, sebagian besar sekolah yang berkualitas di NTT adalah sekolah misi. Tapi biayanya mahal karena mereka tidak lagi didukung oleh dana dari luar. Bantuan pemerintah untuk lembaga pendidikan sejenis itu akan sangat membantu perluasan kesempatan belajar bagi masyarakat di wilayah Indonesia bagian timur.
- Hilangkan label agama dalam kehidupan bernegara, karena sering kali agama justeru menjadi hambatan persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa daripada pendapat yang selama ini digemborkan ‘bahwa setiap agama mengajarkan kebaikan’. Fanatisme sempit para pemeluk agama sering kali diperparah oleh pelabelan tersebut. Saya berpendapat bahwa orang harus dinilai atas dasar kualitas daripada agama yang dianutnya. Karena itu, mencantumkan agama seseorang dalam kartu identitas lebih banyak buntung ketimbang untung. Demikian juga perarturan pemerintah yang mengedepankan ajaran agama tertentu adalah musuh bagi kelanggengan persatuan Indonesia.
- Kembangkan komunikasi dan dialog intensif antara segenap elemen masyarakat di Indonesia untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kesadaran akan keragaman bangsa. Syaratnya adalah kesadaran kritis bahwa keragaman mengandung potensi disintegrasi bangsa. Karena itu, proses peningkatan nasionalisme harus dikembangkan secara terus menerus melalui dialog bukan dengan senjata. Pemaksaan pendapat lewat represi militeristik sesungguhnya tidak kondusif dan sustainabel bagi integrasi bangsa. Apalagi dengan kadar profesionalisme tentara dan polisi yang setali tiga uang dengan preman pasar.
Mengingat pentingnya dialog dan komunikasi demi pemupukan rasa saling mengenal antara kelompok masyarakat di Indonesia, saya akhir sharing ini dengan sebuah cerita. Orang NTT sebenarnya juga terkenal dalam beberapa hal. Diantaranya adalah suka berkelahi dan menjadi preman. Tidak mengherankan ketika saya bicara tentang keberhasilan orang – orang NTT, seorang teman menyatakan: “Bukannya orang NTT itu lebih banyak kerja sebagai satpam?” Karena perilaku sebagian orang NTT yang sering mabuk dan terlibat kriminal banyak pemilik kos di Yogya enggan menerima orang NTT bersama dengan orang Batak dan Palembang sebagai anak kostnya. Salah seorang teman dari NTT yang kemudian menjadi preman di Yogya pernah bercerita begini:
Ketika sebelum berangkat kuliah di Jawa, dia sudah diceritakan bahwa Jawa itu banyak pencopetnya, jadi harus berhati-hati. Saat turun di Janti, dia menyewah becak ke Mrican. Di becak dia duduk menghadap tukang becak.
Tukang becak bilang: “Mas, duduknya menghadap ke depan!”
Jawabnya: “Biar saja begini!”
“Mas, tolong menghadap ke depan!” kata tukang becak lagi.
“Tidak, saya duduk begini saja!” kata teman itu.
“Kalau Mas tidak menghadap ke ke depan saya gak bisa jalan!” kata tukang becak bingung.
“Hei, lu pikir saya sonde tahu lu pung maksud? Lu suruh saya menghadap ke depan supaya lu copet saya pung dompet kan?” Bentak teman itu sambil memegang erat – erat dompetnya.
Jangan salah! Calon preman takut juga dicopet!.
Herman Seran
Introduksi
Ketika panitia seminar menggategorikan NTT sebagai wilayah yang terpinggirkan secara identitas, dan saya diminta bersaksi tentang bentuk marginalisasi tersebut saya sempat bingung: bagaimana pendapat saya. Karena menurut pengamatan orang Indonesia yang lain, orang NTT telah tergeser ke tepian kehidupan bernegara Indonesia, setelah 61 tahun bersama mengikrarkan satu kebersamaan dalam payung negara kesatuan Republik Indonesia.
Apa benar bahwa orang dan wilayah NTT terpinggirkan secara identitas? Apa alasan untuk mengklaim bahwa NTT sungguh terpinggirkan akibat dinamika sosial, ekonomi dan politik negara yang mengakui hakekatnya untuk melindungi segenap bangsa Indonesia tanpa berbagai embel – embel sejenis minoritas atau mayoritas? Secara umum saya akui bahwa pernyataan tersebut ada benarnya. Tapi jangan – jangan ini cuman perasaan saya saja? Karena nyatanya, hari ini AIPPSA masih memberikan kesempatan kepada kelompok yang terpinggirkan itu untuk bicara. Atau, di tingkat nasional, hasil muktamar NU yang baru lalu membuktikan bahwa pluralitas dan kebhinekaan Indonesia masih disadari oleh organisasi muslim terbesar di Indonesia itu.
Untuk pembahasan isu peminggiran identitas tersebut, saya akan mengkalibrasi opini saya dengan pernyataan beberapa teman yang berasal dari NTT maupun yang lama tinggal di NTT. Kemudian kita melihat bukti – bukti yang mendukung dalam konteks pengalaman saya sebagai orang NTT. Selanjutnya saya mendiskusikan akibat marginalisasi tersebut bagi kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara Indonesia. Berdasarkan pemaparan di atas, saya akan susulkan dengan apa ide saya untuk menjaga persatuan dan kesatuan Indonesia di masa depan.
Kalibrasi Opini
Saya coba bertanya kepada beberapa teman saya lewat email untuk menyelaraskan opini saya yang sering kali ekstrem. Katakanlah pooling opini cendikiawan muda yang berasal dari dan atau bekerja di NTT. Sebagian besar mereka mengakui bahwa pendapat saya tidak terlalu menyimpang dari apa yang mereka pikirkan. Berikut petikan dari beberapa pernyataan mereka:
“...satu hal yang saya sesali adalah betapa piciknya anak-anak bangsa sekarang yang menggunakan dan memanfaatkan perbedaan yang ada sebagai alat untuk memaksakan kepentingan sebagian golongan. disini anak-anak bangsa non jawa menjadi kelompok minoritas dan terpinggir karena dianggap tidak penting, tidak berbudaya, tidak pintar dan kurang berpendidikan. kira-kira segini aja komentar saya soalnya sakit hati kalau diterusin...” (AL)
“…pendapatan per kapita penduduk NTT ternyata kedua paling kecil: Rp3.113.300,00, sangat kecil dibanding pendapatan per kapita nasional Rp10.461.700,00. Ini hanya sedikit lebih tinggi dari Maluku Utara, Rp2.713.700,00. Padahal ketong tahu mereka baru saja lepas dari konflik panjang!...” (PP)
“…Gambaran situasi pendidikan di Desa Oeniko, Kabupaten Kupang (kurang lebih 55 km dari Kupang): Angka buta huruf di desa ini mencapai 95%. Satu-satunya sekolah yang ada adalah SD darurat yang hanya memiliki 3 kelas yang dibangun dengan swadaya masyarakat (!) dengan bahan seadanya: berdinding bebak gewang dan bambu, dan beratap daun alang-alang. Jumlah guru hanya 2 orang sehingga ada 2 kelas yang hanya diasuh oleh satu tenaga pengajar. Status dari 2 guru tersebut yaitu 1 guru kontrak dan 1 guru bantu, yang gajinya dibayar oleh swadaya masyarakat juga (Rp 450.000/bulan), dan melalui pungutan komite sekolah (Rp 150.000/bulan) (total Rp 600.000/bulan, yang berarti gaji guru Rp 300.000/guru/bulan) .
…. Untuk melanjutkan ke SMP atau SMA, orang harus ke ibukota Kecamatan, yaitu Oesao, yang berjarak 20 km dari desa, dengan jalan yang hanya berupa pengerasan. Sebagai tambahan, selama terbentuknya desa Oeniko, pembangunan sarana dan pra sarana hanya pengkerasan jalan desa sepanjang 1 kilometer sedangkan kantor desa dibangun secara swadaya masyarakat dengan gotong royong....” (RF)
“… saya merasa NTT belum merdeka.Teman-teman bahkan menambahkan, kalau tdk ada konflikTimtim, Kupang-Atambua tdk mungkin ditempuh dalam kurang dr 12 jam alias jalan dan jembatan tdk dibangun...” (DH).
Pengalaman dan observasi pribadi:
Bukti Marginalisasi
NTT memang terpinggirkan secara identitas dalam beberapa aspek:
Aspek geografis: banyak orang Indonesia terlebih yang di Jawa tidak tahu dimana NTT itu berada. Ketika pertama kali saya sekolah di Yogyakarta, saat berkenalan dengan beberapa teman dari jawa. Saya katakan bahwa saya dari NTT. Teman itu menjawab... “Oh Lombok?” “Bukan! Timor!” “Oh Timor Timur?” “Bukan! Timor Barat!” “Dimana Timor Barat?” Pengalaman seperti ini terjadi acap kali terhadap saya selama saya tinggal dan hidup di Yogya dari 1992 hingga 2002.
Aspek Politik dan Pemerintahan: pemerintah Republik Indonesia tidak sadar bahwa NTT itu adalah propinsi kepulauan. Buktinya, sampai hari ini Pemprov NTT masih memperjuangkan status NTT sebagai provinsi kepulauan. Adalah ironis bahwa gelar “Nusa” tidak serta merta berarti kepulauan bagi provinsi yang mempunyai lebih dari 550 pulau tersebut. Karena saking banyaknya pulau, Pulau Pasir (Ashmore Reef) yang secara anthropologis milik orang NTT tidak tergambar dalam peta Belanda tapi muncul di peta Inggris (pers com with Aloysius Maja), sehingga menjadi milik Australia walaupun orang NTT masih berjuang sampai sekarang untuk mengklaim fakta antropologis tersebut.
Aspek Sosial: 91% penduduk NTT adalah Kristen, sehingga pemberlakuan peraturan yang menyiratkan diskriminasi bagi orang non-muslim adalah bentuk marginalisasi bagi orang NTT. Bukti yang paling jelas adalah ancaman dari sekelompok orang NTT untuk keluar dari Indonesia jika RUU APP disahkan menjadi UU. Selain itu vonis hukuman mati bagi Tibo Cs terkait kasus Poso, bagi orang NTT adalah bentuk pengkhianatan yang paling menyakitkan. Mengapa? Di samping karena tiga orang tersebut adalah transmigran asal NTT, bagi orang NTT, vonis itu tidak lebih daripada bentuk penumbalan orang kecil dan ketidakadilan bagi orang kristiani.
Aspek Pendidikan dan Pengembangan SDM: Standar pendidikan Indonesia bagian timur dan barat sangat jauh berbeda. Semua universitas besar ada di Jawa dan Sumatera sementara yang di timur hampir tidak kedengaran. Paling yang kedengaran UNHAS dan UNSRAT, selebihnya tidak ada yang tahu. Ilustrasi tentang universitas di atas menggambarkan kualitas pendidikan secara umum di Indonesia bagian timur yang berada di bawah standar nasional. Sebagai contoh, seorang teman saya dari Flores yang kuliah di AKABRI Magelang tahun 1990-an bercerita kepada saya, bahwa sebelum mengikuti kuliah normal dia ikut kelas matrikulasi. Jika lampu kelas matrikulasi dipadamkan, maka tidak ada yang terlihat kecuali kalau tertawa, karena semuanya berasal dari NTT, Maluku dan Papua. Tapi pada semester pertama kuliah dia menduduki ranking tiga. Pengalaman yang sama terjadi bagi banyak orang NTT yang kuliah di Jawa.
Aspek Pendidikan Sejarah: Pendidikan sejarah Indonesia terlalu menitik beratkan kepada sejarah perjuangan tokoh – tokoh Indonesia bagian barat. Hal demikian menyebabkan pelajaran sejara tidak membangkitkan rasa patriotisme saya sebagai warga negara, justru membuat saya merasa didoktrin dan terpinggirkan. Mengapa? Karena pengajaran demikian tidak membangkitkan sense fo belonging saya terhadap negara RI. Pelajaran sejarah demikian menciptakan kesan alienasi dan tidak menumbuhkan solidaritas kebangsaan. Kenyataannya, tempat lain termasuk NTT pun mempunyai para pejuang yang seharusnya perlu diangkat untuk menunjukkan bahwa Republik ini adalah hasil perjuangan kita semua. Tapi karena tidak diajarkan di sekolah, apa yang diceritakan nenek saya tentang keperwiraan pahlawan lokal daerah saya itu terasa seperti cerita legenda nenek moyang yang menciptakan image kejayaan masa lalu.
Aspek Praktek Kehidupan Harian: Seorang teman saya dari Ende pernah mengatakan bahwa Indonesia itu batasnya sampai di Bali. Kenapa? Karena para pejabat dari pusat kalo ke timur sampai di Bali balik. Dan para pejabat dari timur sering ke Bali untuk melapor. Bukti yang paling nyata adalah ketika ada lowongan kerja dari BUMN atau instansi vertical negara maka tempat testnya untuk NTT maksimum sampai di Bali. Contohnya adalah pengumuman tempat test penerimaan karyawan BI beberapa waktu lalu wilayah Nusa Tenggara dipusatkan di Bali. Dengan sendirinya sebagian besar kandidat NTT sudah tersisih karena keterbatasan akses baik dari segi jarak maupun dana.
Akibat Marginalisasi
Proses panjang marginalisasi tersebut mengkristal dalam bentuk competitive disadvantage yang membuat orang NTT, dan Indonesia bagian timur pada umumnya, berbenturan dengan ‘high barrier to participate’ dalam kehidupan bernegara dan berbangsa. Pada gilirannya, NTT semakin terpinggirkan dan bisa mengarah kepada eskalasi problem – problem sosial politik yang tidak kondusif. Orang hanya tersentak kalo ternyata di Sikka ada bencana kelaparan, sehingga DepSos harus turunkan timnya ke sana. Sayangnya mereka hanya dari atas mobil dan melihat anak – anak melambaikan tangan. Dan mereka simpulkan tidak ada kelaparan, karena anak – anak itu masih bisa bermain dan melambaikan tangan dengan ceriah. Satu pernyataan yang tidak ada bedanya dengan statemen Menko Kesra melihat babi di Yakuhimo gemuk – gemuk, dan menyatakan bahwa tidak ada kelaparan di sana, walaupun terbukti ada yang mati kelaparan.
Seperti apakah barrier to entry yang dimaksud?
Identitas agama dan suku. Ketika saya di SMA guru saya pernah mengatakan kepada kami bahwa paling tidak ada dua syarat untuk menjadi calon presiden Indonesia. Dua kriteria utama tersebut adalah muslim dan Jawa. Sejauh mana pernyataan itu benar? Saya sebagai orang NTT harus realistik bahwa memang Indonesia itu penduduknya mayoritas muslim dan Jawa, jadi probabilitas orang yang tidak memenuhi criteria di atas pasti kecil kemungkinan untuk terpilih. Artinya secara identitas, orang NTT punya hambatan untuk bersaing secara seimbang. Contoh yang lebih membumi: saya pernah ditest untuk menjadi asisten laboratorium sewaktu kuliah. Secara kualitas saya tidak meragukan kemampuan saya, karena di samping IPK saya, hampir setiap tahun dipercayakan jurusan untuk menjadi pembimbing pengenalan lapangan geologi untuk mahasiswa baru, dan beberapa asisten senior sudah mendekati saya. Ketika memasuki tahapan test terakhir dosen penguji bertanya: “Apa Agamamu?” Saya jawab “Katholik.” Ternyata dia tidak bertanya tentang ilmu saya tapi agama saya. Hasilnya, saya tidak lulus test asisten lab. Syukurnya, Freeport mengetes saya dan dinyatakan sebagai satu dari 4 mahasiswa geologi Indonesia yang berkesempatan ikut program ‘link and match’ yang diterapkan mentri P & K Wardiman.
Kualitas SDM. Seperti dijelaskan di atas, kualitas pendidikan orang NTT pada umumnya berada di bawah level nasional. Hal ini bukan dikarenakan potensi yang rendah, tetapi lebih dikarenakan standar mutu pendidikan yang relatif rendah dibandingkan mereka yang di Indonesia bagian barat. Untuk yang satu ini, saya merupakan pendukung JK dalam hal perlunya ujian nasional bagi mereka dari Indonesia Timur, hanya harus disertai dengan pembenahan sistem dan fasilitas pendidikan Indonesia timur. Pernyataan yang dikutip dari kesaksian teman saya tentang sekolah di pinggiran Kupang di atas, menggambarkan wajah pendidikan NTT. Tapi harus diakui bahwa banyak orang NTT yang mampu melompati barrier tersebut dan berkiprah di tingkat nasional. Misalnya rektor pertama Gadja Mada adalah orang NTT dan Konsul RI di Perth adalah juga orang NTT. Atau, tahun ini ada seorang anak SD dari Flores yang menjadi juara olimpiade matematika di Singapura.
Infrastruktur dan fasilitas. Sarana prasarana NTT yang minim membuat sebagian besar orang NTT kalah dalam bersaing di tingkat nasional. Akibatnya adalah mereka lebih menjadi beban bagi negara Indonesia karena tidak produktif. Persoalan sejenis terjadi pada pengembangan potensi alam lokal seperti pertanian dan peternakan. Misalnya, di Timor pernah dikembangkan budidaya apel tropis yang kualitasnya menurut beberapa pakar lebih bagus dari apel Malang. Tapi karena akses pasar yang buntu, apel membusuk, dan petani harus menkonversi lahannya menjadi lahan jagung daripada makan apel sebagai makanan pokok.
Kemampuan ekonomi. Kemampuan perekonomian yang relative sangat rendah dibandingkan dengan daerah lain membuat NTT semakin tersinggirkan karena partisipasi dan aktualisasi diri perlu modal. Bagaimana mungkin mengharapkan orang NTT untuk test di Bali sementara untuk makan saja sulit? Contoh untuk ini adalah seorang teman saya dari Flores. Dia batal untuk menerima beasiswa ADS (targeted) karena tidak punya uang untuk berangkat test ke Jakarta. Tanpa mempertimbangkan usaha dia untuk mencari dana, kenyataan ini menggambarkan betapa sulitnya mobilitas kalau miskin. Apa lagi hanya untuk test masuk BI di Bali yang belum tentu lulus.
Konsekuensi Lanjutan dari Marginalisasi:
Jangka pendek:
- NTT tetap akan menjadi beban bagi kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara secara khusus aspek perekonomian. Teori ekonomi mengataka bahwa salah satu elemen pertumbuhan ekonomi adalah produktifitas. Marginalisasi berakibat pada tidak optimalnya eksploitasi factor – factor produksi. Sementara itu, pemerintah pusat terus menerus mengucurkan dana bantuan. Akibatnya, adalah semakin lebarnya jurang kesenjangan antara timur dan barat.
- Penyelenggaraan kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara yang tidak efektif akibat pemahaman yang tidak utuh tentang NTT. Nusa Tenggara Timur adalah propinsi kepulau dengan ratusan pulau dan puluhan suku bangsa. Adalah tidak efektif jika menerapkan strategi yang digunakan di propinsi lain yang lebih homogen dan relatif berada pada satu daratan. Strategy yang tepat bisa diadopsi hanya jika ada kesadaran dan pengakuan akan pluralisme negara kita.
- Eskalasi sentimen SARA. Ketika orang merasa tidak diakui identitasnya, mereka akan berusaha menunjukkan eksistensi mereka (pers com with Mas Gaffar and Bang Mangadar). Dengan demikian marginalisasi akan mempertajam konflik SARA. Sebagai contoh, sampai hari ini hampir setiap hari ada demonstrasi di NTT menentang hukuman mati Tibo Cs akibat bentuk peradilan yang tidak adil dan sarat kepentingan. Jika hal demikian terus menerus terjadi akibatnya adalah akumulasi frustrasi dan dendam yang mengarah kepada eskalasi anarki. Bahkan dalam hubungan dengan kasus Tibo Cs, Kabupaten Sikka telah ditingkatkan level keamanannya ke Siaga I.
Jangka Panjang: Desintegrasi Bangsa. Jika pemerintah tidak tulus mengatasi persoalan – persoalan marginalisasi hakekat kebhinekaan bangsa, maka akibat jangka panjangnya adalah pecahnya Republik Indonesia menjadi negara – negara kecil. Rasa pesimistik ini juga dirasakan salah seorang warga NTT yang menulis di Pos Kupang (17/8/2006). Dia mengibaratkan Indonesia sebagai orang tua umur 61 tahun yang sudah pikun, tidak tegas dan tegar, dan impoten (Charles Beraf, 2006). Menurut Beraf, Indonesia pikun karena begitu muda melupakan hal – hal besar yang menyangkut integritas bangsa. Misalnya, Indonesia lupa bahwa republik ini terbentuk atas dasar pluralisme, dimana frase ‘dengan kewajiban menjalankan syariat Islam bagi pemeluknya’ dihapus dari Pancasila sebagai akomodasi suara tokoh – tokoh Indonesia bagian timur oleh tokoh – tokoh Islam nasionalis. Bangsa ini juga tidak tegas menyelesaikan persoalan – persoalan di republik ini, sehingga republik ini lebih banyak dikendalikan oleh kepentingan – kepentingan kelompok tertentu. Dan bangsa ini juga sudah impoten karena tidak mampu memproduksi pemimpin – pemimpin besar yang mampu mengayomi segenap bangsa Indonesia tapi membiarkan bangsa ini dibawa kepada desintegrasi.
Mempertahankan Integrasi Bangsa
Bagaimana mempertahankan Integrasi Republik Indonesia? Saya mengawali pembahasan saya dengan mengutip pernyataan seorang dosen Universitas Katholik Widya Mandira Kupang di Pos Kupang (18/8/2006) tentang pengalaman ke-Indonesia-annya:
“…Rakyat kecil itu tidak sedang berperkara dengan Indonesia. Tapi sesungguhnya mereka sedang berperkara dengan ketidakadilan atas nama Indonesia. Dengan keterbelakangan atas nama negara. Dengan ketertindasan atas nama Tanah Air. Dengan berbagai penderitaan yang dilakukan atas nama Republik Indonesia. Mereka berada di Indonesia, tetapi terisih dan kalah di negerinya sendiri yang bernama Indonesia. Mereka selalu menjadi korban dari kebijakan-kebijakan atas nama Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia. Di situlah rakyat sering diperangkap oleh keindonesiaan yang semu dan penuh siasat bulus. Keindonesiaan yang membuat rakyat susah dan sering menjadi korban, sementara para elite ongkang-ongkang dalam kesenangan. Jika belakangan ini muncul wacana krisis nasionalisme, jangan-jangan esensi dan muaranya ialah krisis perilaku elite yang sering mengatasnamakan Indonesia...” (Emiliana Martuti Lawalu, 2006).
Jadi mempertahankan Indonesia lebih pada penghentian penyalahgunaan Indonesia untuk kepentingan pribadi dan kelompok. Mari kita menyadari bahwa integritas bangsa sedang kita pertaruhkan demi kepentingan sempit. Dalam hal ini strong political will pemerintah untuk kembali ke misi utama negara: menghantarkan segenap bangsa Indonesia menuju pintu gerbang kemerdekaan yang sesungguhnya. Gerbang yang di dalamnya setiap orang merasa sungguh Indonesia karena mempunyai tempat yang sejajar dan berkeadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia.
Secara praktis saya menganjurkan:
- Pemerintah harus benar – benar menerapkan strategi pembangunan yang mengakomodasi potensi dan karakter lokal setiap daerah. Hal demikian hanya bisa terjadi jika negara sungguh mengenal dan mengakui eksistensi daerah dan masyarakatnya di seluruh nusantara. Pemerintah harus secara sengaja menerapkan program yang revolusioner untuk mempercepat ketertinggalan Indonesia bagian timur. Misalnya, Kalimantan dan Irian sebagai daerah yang kaya tambang dan hasil hutan harus didukung dengan sistem pengembangan sumber daya manusia yang menjawabi tantangan tersebut. Sementara Kepulauan Maluku dan Nusa Tenggara yang merupakan daerah kepulauan harus disokong dengan sistem transportasi laut dan infrastruktur yang memadai. Sehubungan dengan itu, saya setuju dengan negara federal sebagai bentuk pemerintahan yang lebih tepat untuk indonesia mengingat kebhinekaan dan pluralitas Republik Indonesia.
- Berikan perhatian khusus kepada pengembangan sumber daya manusia di Indonesia bagian timur. Untuk berkompetisi secara adil dibutuhkan starting point yang sama. Selama kualitas SDM barat dan timur tidak seimbang maka perasaan bahwa Indonesia bagian barat atau jawa menjajah luar jawa tetap akan menjadi isu yang mengancam desintegrasi bangsa. Karena itu langkah utama pemerintah adalah program – program strategis berkaitan langsung dengan peningkat kualitas institusi pendidikan. Untuk itu pemerintah dianjurkan menyokong dan mensubsidi institusi – institusi pendidikan yang berkualitas di daerah – daerah tersebut sehingga makin banyak anak didik yang tertampung di sana. Sebagai contoh, sebagian besar sekolah yang berkualitas di NTT adalah sekolah misi. Tapi biayanya mahal karena mereka tidak lagi didukung oleh dana dari luar. Bantuan pemerintah untuk lembaga pendidikan sejenis itu akan sangat membantu perluasan kesempatan belajar bagi masyarakat di wilayah Indonesia bagian timur.
- Hilangkan label agama dalam kehidupan bernegara, karena sering kali agama justeru menjadi hambatan persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa daripada pendapat yang selama ini digemborkan ‘bahwa setiap agama mengajarkan kebaikan’. Fanatisme sempit para pemeluk agama sering kali diperparah oleh pelabelan tersebut. Saya berpendapat bahwa orang harus dinilai atas dasar kualitas daripada agama yang dianutnya. Karena itu, mencantumkan agama seseorang dalam kartu identitas lebih banyak buntung ketimbang untung. Demikian juga perarturan pemerintah yang mengedepankan ajaran agama tertentu adalah musuh bagi kelanggengan persatuan Indonesia.
- Kembangkan komunikasi dan dialog intensif antara segenap elemen masyarakat di Indonesia untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan dan kesadaran akan keragaman bangsa. Syaratnya adalah kesadaran kritis bahwa keragaman mengandung potensi disintegrasi bangsa. Karena itu, proses peningkatan nasionalisme harus dikembangkan secara terus menerus melalui dialog bukan dengan senjata. Pemaksaan pendapat lewat represi militeristik sesungguhnya tidak kondusif dan sustainabel bagi integrasi bangsa. Apalagi dengan kadar profesionalisme tentara dan polisi yang setali tiga uang dengan preman pasar.
Mengingat pentingnya dialog dan komunikasi demi pemupukan rasa saling mengenal antara kelompok masyarakat di Indonesia, saya akhir sharing ini dengan sebuah cerita. Orang NTT sebenarnya juga terkenal dalam beberapa hal. Diantaranya adalah suka berkelahi dan menjadi preman. Tidak mengherankan ketika saya bicara tentang keberhasilan orang – orang NTT, seorang teman menyatakan: “Bukannya orang NTT itu lebih banyak kerja sebagai satpam?” Karena perilaku sebagian orang NTT yang sering mabuk dan terlibat kriminal banyak pemilik kos di Yogya enggan menerima orang NTT bersama dengan orang Batak dan Palembang sebagai anak kostnya. Salah seorang teman dari NTT yang kemudian menjadi preman di Yogya pernah bercerita begini:
Ketika sebelum berangkat kuliah di Jawa, dia sudah diceritakan bahwa Jawa itu banyak pencopetnya, jadi harus berhati-hati. Saat turun di Janti, dia menyewah becak ke Mrican. Di becak dia duduk menghadap tukang becak.
Tukang becak bilang: “Mas, duduknya menghadap ke depan!”
Jawabnya: “Biar saja begini!”
“Mas, tolong menghadap ke depan!” kata tukang becak lagi.
“Tidak, saya duduk begini saja!” kata teman itu.
“Kalau Mas tidak menghadap ke ke depan saya gak bisa jalan!” kata tukang becak bingung.
“Hei, lu pikir saya sonde tahu lu pung maksud? Lu suruh saya menghadap ke depan supaya lu copet saya pung dompet kan?” Bentak teman itu sambil memegang erat – erat dompetnya.
Jangan salah! Calon preman takut juga dicopet!.
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